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PREFACE. 



The design of this manual, as its title indicates, is 
not to furnish an independent treatise on language, 
but only to afford an additional aid to its study and 
use, in connection with the standard grammars to 
which it refers. 

The first part enters fully into the structure of the 
sentence, and by familiar examples, carefully selected, 
illustrates most of the combinations which the English 
sentence exhibits. The frequent references to the 
excellent and almost exhaustive treatises of Dr. 
Bullions will serve to refresh the memory of the 
pupil in the principles therein so ably stated, and in 
many instances, it is believed, assist him in a more 
thorough mastery of their application. It is believed 
that the sections relating to the structure of deriv- 
ative words will be found of practical value, embracing 

(iii) 



IV PKEFACE. 

in small compass all that is most needful in that 
department. 

The second part gives a series of selections which 
will be found profitable for analysis and parsing ; 
whilst the references, especially in cases of unusual 
idiom or construction, will materially aid the begin- 
ner, and serve to impress them practically upon his 
mind. 

In the third part an attempt has been made rather 
to suggest some practical methods in composition, 
than to present either extended and tiresome exer- 
cises, or an exhaustive statement of the laws of rhet- 
oric. The formal study of that art requires a separate 
and more pretentious treatise. 

Brooklyn, 1869. 



CONTENTS. 



PAR T I. 

ANALYSIS. 

%* The figures in full-faced type refer to the Sections. 

Page 

Preliminary Suggestions, 1— 6 l 

Divisions op the Subject, 7—14 3 

Relations of Words, 15 4 

Exercises, 16 — 17 5 

Definitions, 18—33 8 

The Sentence, 34—36 12 

Elements of, 37—40. 14 

Classification of, 41 15 

I. Forms, 42—46. ....'. 16 

II. Nature of the Affirmation, 47—49. ..,■*• 17 

III. Number of Propositions, 50—52 18 

Single Sentences, 53 18 

Table of Classification, 54 20 

The Subject, 53—58 20 

Simple and Compound, 59 22 

The Predicate, 60—65 23 

Extension of, 66—68 23 

Simple and Compound, 69 25 

The Circumstance, 70—71 2G 

The Parenthesis, 72 2G 

The Object, 73—77. 27 

The Attribute, 78—81, 27 

Second Objects, 82, 83 29 

Compound Sentences, 84 32 

1. Copulative, 88—90 33 

2. Disjunctive, 91, 92 34 

3. Antithetic, 93—95 34 

4. Illative, 96 35 

Abridged, 101—107 37 

(y) 



VI CONTENTS. 

Page 

Complex Sentences, 108 — 130 36 

Clauses in, 108—111. . . 38 

Forms, 112—119 39 

Substantive Clause, 120, 121 40 

Adnominal, 123, 124 41 

Adverbial, 125, 126 42 

Connectives, 127, 128 43 

Clauses, Table of, 129 44 

Examples, 130 45 

Abridged and Extended Sentences, 131. 4(3 

Position of Dependent Clauses, 134 49 

Comparative Clauses, 135 50 

Infinitive and Participial Clauses, 136—140 50 

Directions for Analysis, 141 52 

Models of Analysis, 142. ... * 53 

Examples for Analysis, 143 5G 

Mules of Syntax (Summary), 144 65 

The Substantive, 145—151 65 

The Pronoun, 152, 153 68 

The Verb, 154—157 69 

The Adverb, 158. . 71 

Conjunctions, 159 72 

The Preposition, 160. . . .73 

Interjections, 161 73 

Words, 162 74 

Classification, 162—164 74 

Parts of Speech, 165—177 76 

Parsing, 178. 79 

Table of Parts of Speech, 179 81 

Uses of the Parts of Speech, 180 82 

Noun or Pronoun, 180 82 

Verb, 181—185 82 

Relative, 186—190 84 

Interrogative, 191 , . . . . 85 

Adjective, 192 85 

Adverb, 193, 194 86 

Conjunction, 195—200 . 86 

Analysis of the Verb, 201— 210 88 

The Auxiliaries, 211—221 91 

The Subjunctive Mood, 222—224 95 

Structure of Words, 225 96 

Prefixes, 230 97 

Saxon, 230. I 97 

Latin, 230. II. 97 

Greek, 230. Ill 99 



CONTENTS. Vll 

Structure of Words {continued). Page 

Suffixes, 234 iOO 

Latin Roots, 235 103 

Verbs, 235 103 

Nouns, Adjectives, etc., 236 109 

Analysis of Wokds, 237 117 

Literal and Tropical Meaning, 238 119 

Compound Words, 239, 240 120 

General Exercises 241 120 

Synonyms, 242. . • 122 



P A. TZ T II. 

SELECTIONS FOB ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Exercises in Prose. 

I. Select Sentences, 243 123 

II. Select Paragraphs, 244 126 

III. Moral Reflections, 245 128 

IV. The Hill of Science, 246 131 

V. The Importance of a Good Education, 247 135 

VI. Order in the Distribution of our Time, 248 133 

VII. The Pleasure of acquiring Knowledge, 249. 138 

VIII. The Uses of Knowledge, 250 141 

IX. Character of Washington, 251 . 143 

Exercises in Poetry. 

I. Select Sentences, 256 147 

II. Select Paragraphs, 257 150 

III. The Union, 258 153 

IV. Early Recollections, 259 154 

V. Flowers the Gift of Divine Benignity, 260 154 

VI. To the Ocean, 261 . 155 

VII. Description of a Storm, 262 157 

VIII. Ode to Peace, 263 159 

IX. The Ruins, 264 1(30 

X. Summer Morning, 265 101 

XI. The Land of Dreams, 266 102 

XII. The Rainbow, £6 7 104 

XIII. Hope triumphant in Death, 268 105 

XIV. The Hermit, 269 107 

XV. Procrastination, 270 109 

XVI. Road to Happiness open to All, 271 170 

XVII. Hymn on Review of the Seasons, 272 171 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

Exercises in Poetry {continued). p 

XVIII. The Order of Nature, 273 *°* 

XIX. Invocation to Light, 274 176 

XX. Discourse between Adam and Eve, 275 \ . 1?7 

PA.R,T III. 

COMPOSITION. 

Different Methods, 276—280 181 

I. Framing Sentences, 281 Igo 

II. Copying, 282, 283 18 3 

III. Dictation Exercises, 284 133 

IV. Reproduction, 285 . i§4 

V. Impromptu Composition, 286 185 

I. Paraphrase, 287, 288. 185 

Exercises, 289 187 

Variety of Expression, 290, 291 188 

Criticism, 292, 293 191 

The Essay, 294, 295 191 

Examples, 296 192 

Letter Writing, 297—302 193 

Style, 303—307 195 

Choice of Words 196 

Perspicuity, 308 • 196 

Purity, 309 19f 

Propriety, 310 196 

Precision, 311 396 

Structure of Sentences, 312 39? 

Clearness and Precision, 312. 1 19 

Unity, 312. II . . 197 

Strength, 312. Ill 197 

Harmony, 312. IV 199 

Figurative Language, 313—319 200 

Varieties of Style, 320, 321 201 

Punctuation and Capitals, 322 202 



ANALYSIS, PAUSING, 

AND 

COMPOSITION. 



TPJk. RT I. 

ANALYSIS. 

[References. — The foot notes answering to the references in 
the text are, 1st, to the paragraphs in Bullions's Analytical and 
Practical English Grammar (A. & P. Gr.), and, 2d, to the Les- 
sons in Bullions's Common School Grammar (C. S. Gr.). The 
figures in parentheses in the text refer to the Sections of this book.] 

1. Gh*ammar has been defined as "the art of 
speaking and writing correctly." 1 The study of 
grammar, therefore, should result in skill in the 
use of language. Grammars can not make language : 
they can only interpret it. 

2. From the examination of language as 
we find it in the use of the best speakers and writers, 
we discover the form, office, and construction 

of words, whence we derive general principles 
and laws. 

A. &P. Gr. — 15. 

C. S. Gr. — iLesBonl. 

(1) 



2 ANALYSIS. 

3. The study of these laws and principles, together 
with practice in their application (that is, compo- 
sition, either oral or written), tends to confirm us in 
the right use of language — in expressing our 
thoughts in " a correct and proper manner, according 
to established usage." 2 

4. The "Elements of Grammar," as generally- 
presented in the text-books, puts us in possession of a 
nomenclature, to aid in an analysis of language as 
we find it in common use. 

0. But a technical knowledge of grammatical nomen- 
clature, definitions, inflections, and rules, does not neces- 
sarily or generally result in skill in the use of language, 
or much exalt it into an aid to thought. Such knowl- 
edge is but a means to an end. 

G. The most obvious means, then, to become thor- 
oughly and practically acquainted with a language, is, 

1. To read critically and with this end in view, 
according to the methods hereinafter presented, the 
works of our best authors, and, 

2. To practice the Art of Composition, guided 
by these as models, and assisted by a just system of 
analysis and composition. 

Such system it is the design of this little book to 
furnish. 

A. &P. Gr. — 2£. 

C. S. Gr.— 2 Lesson 1. 



DIVISIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 

7. There are three principal considerations in the 
study and use of language : — 

1. The meaning of words. 

2. The relations in which they stand to each other. 

3. Their use in accordance with the laws of lan- 
guage and the principles of style (304) to express 
thought with force and elegance. 

8. The first of these is embraced in Lexicol- 

9. The second is properly the office of Grammar. 

1 0. The third belongs to Mhetoric, and in its sim- 
pler expression embraces " The Elements of Compo- 
sition." 

11. The "Tart of Speech" assigned' to a word is of far 
less moment than correctness in its use to signify the idea it is 
intended to represent, and its proper relation to other words. 

12. The grammatical relation also of a single word 
often amounts to little where the sense depends upon the asso- 
ciated meaning and office of several tvords performing a dis- 
tinct sentential office (37)- 

13. 1. Phrases and clauses (32. 2. 4), there- 
fore, in any just philosophy of language, demand special 
attention. 

2. For example, sentences of the most various mean- 
ing may be framed with the same grammatical 1 subject and 
the same leading verb; as, — 

The love of money is the root of all evil. 

The love of virtue is a source of happiness. 

A. &P. Gr.— ^608. 
C.S.Gr.-i Lesson 42. I. 

(3) 



4 ANALYSIS. 

14. In parsing, as well as in composition, we 

should first take account of the sentence as a whole, 1 
then of its clatises and phrases, and lastly of the 
individual words that go to make up and give to each 
part its special shades of meaning. 

Relations of Words. 

15. The office which words in a phrase or sen- 
tence perform with respect to each other is called their 
relation.* The relation of words is expressed 
in three ways : — 

1. Words may be united without any sign, in 
accordance with the idiom f of the language, by their 
position only, so that no explanation can make their 
relation more apparent; as, "Good boy," "John runs," 
" He wrote a letter," etc. 

2. By inflection. This is, perhaps, in English, 
only a special case of the preceding, indicating rather 
the form to be used than anything peculiar in the 
relation proper. The possessive case may, how- 
ever, be regarded as a proper example ; as, " On eagles' 
wings." 

3. By connectives. The principal of these are as 
follows : — 

* When the mind so considers one thing-, that it does, as it were, bring 
it to and set it by another, and carries its view from one to the other, this 
is, as the words import, relation and respect. — Locke, Hum. Understand, 
Bk. II. ch. 25. 

f An idiom is a mode of speaking or writing* foreign from the usages of 
Universal Grammar, or the general laws of language, and restricted to the 
genius of some individual tongue; a mode of expression peculiar to a lan- 
guage. — Brande, Encyc. 

A.&P. Gr.— 1597, Note. 



RELATIONS OF WORDS. 5 

(a.) Conjunctions, uniting words or sentences.* 

(b.) The relative, connecting its clause with the 
antecedent, which in all cases it limits (115). 

(c.) Conjunctive adverbs; as. It remains 
ivhere it was. 1 

(d.) A preposition connects the principal 
word in- its phrase with the word which the phrase 
limits (160) ; as, He went to the city. The word 
limited is called the antecedent term of the rela- 
tion. The substantive following the preposition is 
called the subsequent term. 

(e.) The attributive 2 verb connects the attribute 
as a limiter of its subject; as, John is wise; Grant is 
president. 

Practical Exercises* 

10. Examine each of the following sentences (32. 3), in a 
practical way, without any of the technical machinery of gram- 
mar, and we shall easily find the elements of some of the prin- 
ciples upon which the right use of language depends. 

1. The great business of man is to improve his mind and gov- 
ern his manners. 

2. The whole universe is his library; conversation, his living 
studies ; and remarks upon them are his best tutors. 

3. Learning is the temperance of youth, the comfort of old 
age, and the only sure guide to honor and preferment. 

{to improve his mind 
and 
[to] govern his manners. 

In this sentence, that of which the statement is made is, " the 

* For more particular discussion of the different classes of conjunctions, 
see A. & P. Gr. 561, et seq., and 944-969. 
A. &P. Gr.— 1534. *319. 
C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 31, Obs. 6. 216.5. 
1* 



6 



ANALYSIS. 



great business of man." The sentence tells what it is, viz., "to 
improve his mind and govern his manners." 

" The great business of man " is the subject, 1 
The rest of the sentence is called the predicate.' 1 
The principal word in the subject is business, limited or de- 
scribed by the words " great " and " the," and further limited by 
the phrase " of man," to tell whose business. 

The leading word in the predicate is " ts," used to connect 3 
(4:9. I) the subject with the remainder of the predicate, and to 
assert that " the great business," etc., "is" or "exists" with 
reference to that end. 

What is thus asserted and connected by is, is "to improve " — 
limited by the object "mind" — that which is to be improved, 
and " to govern," limited in like manner by its object " manners." 
The whole following the word "is," is called the attribute. 

(2.) In the second sentence there are three distinct statements, 
closely allied to each other (31 . c.) ; but independent in struc- 
ture, each having its own distinct grammatical relations. We 
may arrange the subject and predicate in each as follows : — 
Subject. Predicate. 

The whole universe ... is his library ; 

conversation . . . (is) his living studies ; 
[and] remarks are his best tutors. 

upon them 
(3.) In the third sentence "learning" is the subject. It is 
unlimited ; the rest of the sentence being in the predicate. It 
may be arranged as follows : — 

'the temperance of youth, 
the comfort 



(3.) Learning ... is S . of old age, 



I [and] the only sure guide . honor 

to < and 

(^ preferment. 



A. &P. Gr. — 1586. 1. *586.2. $587. 
C. S.Gr. — i Lesson 39. 1. 239.2. 339.2. 



RELATIONS OF WORDS. 7 

This sentence lias three attributes (78) of the subject con- 
nected together. 

4. "His head, which was covered with a white linen cap, 
his shriveled hands, and his voice, were all shaken under the 
influence of a palsy ; and a few moments ascertained to me that 
he was perfectly blind." — Wirfs Blind Preacher. 

(4.) Re-arrange this sentence so that the relation of its parts 
may be more readily seen : — 

His head, 

which was covered 



y all . . . were shaken 

under the influence 
of a palsy ; 



with a white linen cap, 

his shriveled hands, 

and 
his voice, 

and 
a few moments . . . ascertained . . . that he was perfectly blind. 

to me 

(a.) In this simple description there are two main propositions, 
given in the order of their apprehension by the writer, and con- 
nected by the word and. 

(b.) The first member (52) tells something of "head," "hands," 
and " voice." For greater clearness and force, as the first part 
of the sentence is long and complicated, they are represented by 
the added word "all." It is said of them, that they "were 
shaken," etc. 

The word " head " is described [or limited] directly by "his," 
referring to " preacher," in a preceding sentence, and, incident- 
ally, by the clause " which was covered," etc. ; and " covered " 
is limited, to tell how, by the phrase " with a white linen cap." 

"His" and "shriveled" describe "hands." The first part 
of the sentence, to and including the word "all," is called the 
Subject; for it contains that of which the proposition treats. 

The remainder —" were shaken under the influence of a 
palsy " — tells something of the subject, and is called the pred- 
icate. The principal words are " were shaken," limited, to tell 



8 ANALYSIS. 

the means or instrument, by " under the influence," etc. ; and 
" influence " is limited by " of a palsy." 

(c.) In the second member the subject is " a few moments." The 
leading word in the predicate, " ascertained," is of such a na- 
ture that it must have something after it to complete the sense, 
viz., what was ascertained, and this is represented by the entire 
clause (32. 4), " that he was perfectly blind." 

Note. — Taken by itself, this last clause also has subject and 
predicate. Point out each. 

5. Point out the subject and predicate in each of the follow- 
ing sentences. State the principal word in each, and show by 
what word or words it is limited or described : — 

"Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, 
A youth to fortune and to fame unknown." 

" The love of praise is a passion deeply fixed in the mind of 
every extraordinary person." 

"Truth is the basis of honor; it is the beginning of virtue; 
it liveth and conquereth for ever." 

" The heart and the tongue are the best and the worst parts 
of man." 

" Proficiency in language is a rare accomplishment." 

" He who is first to condemn, will often be the last to forgive." 

[Additional exercises may be found in Part II.] 

17. Presuming that the pupil has carefully considered these 
sentences, and is familiar with at least the elements of etymol- 
ogy, we may proceed to a more formal statement of the princi- 
ples of grammatical analysis. 

Definitions. 

18. Language is the means by which we ex- 
press our thoughts. 1 

19. Language has been characterized as natural 
or artificial. 

A. &P. Gr. — ij. 

C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 1. 



DEFINITIONS. 9 

20. Under the former are included, 1st. Cries and Gestures, 
called absolute language ; and 2d. Speech, called conven- 
tional language — differing among different peoples in various 
parts of the world. 

21. The latter embraces, 1st. Painting, Sculpture, 
etc., understood in common by all men, yet modified in their 
force by the culture of those whom they address, called abso- 
lute ; and 2d. Conventional Artificial language, as ex- 
hibited in emblems, hieroglyphics, writing, etc. This 
scheme may tfe shown as follows : — 

r ]<f a t ura i { Absolute — Cries and Gestures, 

1 Conventional — Speech. 
Languages are<( 

f Absolute — Painting, Sculpture. 
I Artificial^ Conventional — Emblems, Signs, 
L Hieroglyphics, Writing. 

22. In the present treatise our discussion must be confined 
to the use of language in speech (including by implica- 
tion its representation in writing).* 

23. Locke says, The ends of language in our discourse with 
others, are chiefly these three : First, To maize known one 
man's thoughts or ideas to another ; Secondly, To do it with 
as much ease and quickness as possible; and, Thirdly, 
Thereby to convey the knowledge of things. Language is 
either abused or deficient when it fails of any of these three. — 
Hum. Understand. Bk. iii. ch. x. § 23. 

24. Grammar, in its technical sense, is confined 
to the meaning and uses of words in the expres- 
sion of propositions. It embraces the sentence, 
and does not necessarily extend to continued discourse. 

25. Composition uses grammar as an aid to 
correct speahing and writing ^ but embraces, in 
addition, the process of thought f in unfolding, in 

* " Grammar is the art of true and well Speaking a language; the writ- 
ing is but an accident." — B. Jonson. 
t " But thought and language have ever been most intimately allied. If 



10 ANALYSIS. 

regular and systematic order, ideas and relations refer- 
able to some central theme. 

26. The analysis of sentences is in accordance 
with the principles of language, for the purpose of 
ascertaining its laws, that, being understood, they may 
be used in composition. 

27. The necessity for language grows out of our 
consciousness of impressions, an# the exist- 
ence, primarily, of things (including qualities, states, 
and conditions) outside of ourselves to make these im- 
pressions. 

28. When an object is presented to the senses, 
and perceived by the mind, the impression or image 
that remains is called an Idea* of the object. [We 
shall use this term in this simple sense.] 

29. When the mind is conscious of a vela- 
Hon between two (or more) ideas, we are said to 
think. This act of the mind is Thought. 

language, by its originality of structure and its native richness, can in its 
delineations interpret thought with grace and clearness, and if, by its 
happy flexibility, it can paint with vivid truthfulness the objects of the 
external world, it reacts at the same time upon thought, and animates it, 
as it were, with the breath of life. It is this mutual re-action which makes 
words more than mere signs and forms of thought; and the beneficent 
influence of a language is most strikingly manifest on its native soil, where 
it has sprung spontaneously from the minds of the people, whose character 
it embodies." — Cosmos, I. 37. 

* Words, also, being immediately the signs of men's ideas, and, by that 
means, the instruments whereby men communicate their conceptions and 
express to one another those thoughts and imaginations they have within 
their own breasts, there comes, by constant use, to be such a connection 
between certain sounds and the ideas they stand for, that the names heard 
almost as readily excite certain ideas, as if the objects themselves, which 
are apt to produce them, did actually affect the senses. Which is mani- 
festly so in all obvious sensible qualities, and in all substances that fre- 
quently and familiarly occur to us. — Locke, Hum. Und. Bk. III. ch. ii. 6. 



DEFINITIONS. 11 

30. We form a Judgment* of some subject of 
thought when we affirm or deny some quality or 
circumstance respecting it. 

31. (a.) An Idea is a mental image of a thing. 
(b.) A Thought is the consciousness of relation 

between ideas. 

(c.) A Proposition is a judgment of the mind 
which may be put into words. 

32. The forms of language used to express these 
distinctions, may be defined as follows : — 

1. A word 1 is the sign of an idea ; as, boy, good, 
runs. 

2. A phrase 2 is the expression of a thought. 

[It is two or more words rightly put together, but not contain- 
ing an affirmation or making complete sense; as, "In truth" — 
" Green grass," etc.] 

In grammar this term is generally limited to the adjunct 
formed by a preposition, and its regimen* 

3. A sentence is the form of words used to ex- 
press a proposition ; A as, " Snow is white " — " God 
created the world" — "When I would do good, evil is 
present with me." 

Note. — The term proposition is used in this manual to 
signify the substance of the judgment. The sentence is the 
form of words, considered in their meanings and relations. 

* Judgment is that operation of the mind through which, joining dif- 
ferent ideas together, it affirms or denies the one of the other; as 
when, for instance, having the ideas of the earth and of roundness, it af- 
firms or denies that the earth is round. — Fleming, p. 275. 

A. &P. Gr.— ISO. °593. * 539. ±585. 
C.S.Gr.—i Lesson 2. 238. 332, Obs. 3. 438. 



12 



ANALYSIS. 



4. A clause is a form of words having in itself all 
the attributes of a sentence, but used in another 
sentence to limit it or some part of it ; as, If I have 
done you wrong, pardon me. The land, which he first 
discovered, is called San Salvador. He directed the 
boy to study. I saw him leading the horse {10 8) > 

Note. — An infinitive, participial, subjunctive, or relative clause 
can never be used alone, but only in connection with a principal 
sentence containing a finite verb. — A. & P. Gr. SSI. 4. 

33. A tabular view of these terms, as here used, 

may be exhibited as follows : — 



Thing 

Perception 
of relation 

Judgment ^ 



Product 
in the -\ 
Mind 



Idea 



Thought )> Expressed bys 
^ Proposition ^ 



Word. 

Phrase. 

Sentence. 



THE SENTENCE. 

34. Every sentence consists of two parts;* 

that of which the affirmation is made, and that which 
is affirmed of it. 1 

1. The subject is that of which the affirmation 
is made ; 2 as, JFishes swim ; Good boys obey their 
parents. 

2. The predicate is that which is affirmed of 
the subject ; 3 as, Children should obey their parents. 

* Some authors prefer to regard transitive sentences as having three 
parts — the subject, predicate, and object', but this seems less philo- 
sophical. The object in a transitive sentence is as much a part of the pred- 
icate as any other word can be. 

A. & P. Gr. — ^586. *586. ^586.2. 

C. S. Gr.— i Lesson 39. 



THE SENTENCE. 13 

Examples. 



Subject. 



John 

The earth 

Good boys 

The soldier 

The book which I lost 

The desire to do good 

My greatest desire 



Predicate, 
sleeps, 
is round. 

obey their parents, 
was killed in battle, 
has been found, 
is commendable, 
is to go if I am able. 



35. The Sentence, in its simplest form, consists 
of only two words ; as, "Birds fly;" but either the 
subject or predicate, or both, may be enlarged as 

follows : — 

Subject. Predicate. 

Simple Form Birds f sing. 

Enlarged Form . . . Little birds ■ sing sweetly. 

1. When the sentence is transitive (active) {47), 
it may be further expanded by an object to complete 
the sense. 

Subject. Affirmer modified. Object. 



Good men .... employ rightly .... their opportunities. 

2. When it is attributive (49), it is completed 
by adding an attribute of the subject; as, 

Honey ... is sweet to the taste. 

Note. — An adjunct (40. 2) limiting the object is of the 
same nature as one limiting the subject. 

36. We have, therefore, two classes of words, 
called elements — those essential to the expression 
of any proposition, and those used at pleasure for pur- 
poses of modification. 

2 



14 ANALYSIS. 

Elements of the Sentence. 

37. Any word, phrase, or clause performing a dis- 
tinct office * in a sentence is called an Element. 1 

Thus in the sentence, " Good boys study diligently," there 
are four elements, each word having a specific office in the ex- 
pression of the proposition. But in the sentence, " Boys, who 
are good, study with diligence," there are only four elements — 
the subject, boys ; the relative clause, who are good, performing 
the office of an adjective ; the affirmer, study ; and the preposi- 
tional phrase, with diligence, performing the office of an adverb. 

[Separately considered, in Analysis, the relative clause has its 
own elements — subject, affirmer, and attribute.] 

38. The elements of a sentence are either prin- 
cipal or subordinate. 

39. The Principal elements are such as are 
essential to the structure of any proposition — the sub- 
ject and affirmer; f thus in the sentence, "Good boys 
study their lessons diligently," the principal elements 
are boys and study. 

40. Subordinate elements are those which 
limit the principal elements. They are of three kinds. 

1. Complementary elements, used to com- 
plete the assertion demanded by transitive and attrib- 
utive verbs, 2 viz., objects and attributes / as, " He struck 
the table." " Snow is white." 

2. Adjuncts, t used directly to limit the princi- 

* An element is * one of the simplest or essential parts or principles 
of which anything consists, or upon which the constitutional or funda- 
mental powers of anything are based." — Webster. 
f The noun and the verb are the types of these. (See 166.) 
X An adjunct is a word, phrase, or clause joined to another word for 
the purpose of limiting or defining it; as, Good boy. An attribute is 
A. &P. Gr. -1594. 2 317,319. 
C S. Gr. — 2 Lesson 16. 3, 5. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 



15 



pal elements. The adjuncts are distinguished as ad- 
nominal (adjectives) and adverbial. 

3. Attendants, including words of euphony, con- 
nectives, and exclamations. 

Note. — The Preposition is not properly a sentential, but 
only a phrase element ; for the prepositional phrase, as a whole, 
is always an adjunct. 

4. Any subordinate element may itself be limited by 
another. 



SENTENTIAL 
ELEMENTS. 



P R mciPAL....{^^^- 
L Affirmative. 



Subordinate 



Comple- 



[ Objective. 



\ Attributive 
meniary [ Sec . 0bject . ( ^ } . 

■ . . f Adnominal. 

Adi unctive .. . \ . , , . . 
J L Adverbial. 



Attendant . 



Connectives. 
Words of Eu- 
phony. 
Exclamations.* 



Classification of Sentences. 

41. Sentences may be divided into classes, 1 to 
indicate the several relations which they bear to 
discourse. 

the name of any property or characteristic affirmed of a subject; as, 
John is good. It may be a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause. 

* Interjections are sometimes used to indicate, in some sense, the emo- 
tion of the speaker in regard to the thought expressed in the sentence 
with which they are joined; as, " O, for a lodge in some vast wilder- 
ness ! " " O, that I had known ! " — I long for a lodge, etc. I wish that 
I had known. 

For more particular discussion, see (109). 
A. &P. Gr. — 1588. 
C. S. Gi\ — i Lesson 40. 



16 ANALYSIS. 

I. As to the form * of the affirmation, or mode of 
expressing it, they are Declaratory, Interrogatory, Im- 
perative, or Exclamatory} 

II. As to the nature of the Predicate? into 
Transitive, Intransitive, and Attributive. 

III. According to the number of Proposi- 
tions 3 they contain, into Single f and Compound. 

I. Forms of Sentences* 

42. A sentence is Declaratory when it makes 
a direct statement ; as, " God is good." " To be virtu- 
ous is to be happy." " He most lives who thinks 
most." » 

43. An Interrogatory sentence asks a ques- 
tion ; as, " Are the virtuous the most happy ? " " Heard 
ye not the sound ? " 

44. An Imperative sentence expresses a com- 
mand or an entreaty; as, "Hence ! Home ! Get you 
home ! " " Give us, this day, our daily bread ! " 

45. An JExclamatory sentence implies an affir- 
mation by making an exclamation ; as, " What a piece 
of work is man ! How noble in reason ! ... In ap- 
prehension how like a god ! " 

46. The same sentence may, in its several clauses and mem- 
bers, contain two or more of these forms; as, "And he said, 
1 How old art thou? ■ " " Get thee behind me ; for thou art an 
offense unto me." 



* Strictly speaking-, this distinction should be referred to the proposi- 
tion rather than the sentence, as the syntactical relations of the words 
differ in no respect in these several classes. 

t The propriety of using this term here instead of the customary term 
simple, must be apparent. (53. 1.) 

A. & P. Gr. — 1 589. 2 590, 3 59% . 

C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 40, 1. 240,11. 340,111. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 17 

II Nature of the Affirmation. 

47. A Transitive sentence affirms an act done 
by some person or thing to another / as, " Caesar 
conquered Gaul." 

The meaning of the verb is not satisfied unless there is a 
receiver of the act. Thus, the verb conquered is transitive, 
for the act is impossible unless there be some other person or 
thing than the doer. 

48. An Intransitive sentence asserts an act or 
state of its subject, which has no object; as, "He 
walks." " He sleeps." " God moves in a mysterious 
way." 

49. The Attributive sentence asserts and con- 
nects an attribute with its subject; as, "Life is short." 
"The apple tastes sweet." "Newton was a philos- 
opher." 

1. The verb in the attributive sentence generally 
performs only the office of uniting two ideas, and 
has in itself, often, no special meaning. 

2. The verb to be is the most usual copula / * but 
a few other verbs perform a similar syntactical office ; 
such as, to become, to seem, to appear ; verbs ex- 
pressing the relation of a subject to the senses 
or consciousness, whereby a quality is perceived ; 
as, " It tastes sweet," " It sounds loud," " It feels 
smooth," " It smells fragrant," etc. ; verbs of motion 
or position ; and the passives of call, name, 
style, appoint, choose, make, esteem, reck- 
on, elect, etc. 

A. &P. Gr.— 1587. 

C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 39. 2. 

2* ' 



18 ANALYSIS. 

III. Number of Propositions. 

50. A Single sentence expresses only one prop- 
osition ; as, " Life is short." " Life, which is short, 
should be well improved." " Time and tide wait for 
no man." 

51. A Compound sentence consists of two or 
more single sentences so united as to express several 
related propositions ; as, " The wicked flee when no 
man pursueth ; but the righteous are bold as a lion." 

52. The single sentences which make up a com- 
pound sentence are called members. Each mem- 
ber, in analysis and parsing, is to be treated as a 
single sentence. 

Single Sentences. 

53. Single sentences may be divided into three 
classes — Simple, Composite, and Complex. 

1. A single sentence is Simple when it contains 
but one subject and one verb, and, if transitive, 
one object; if attributive, one attribute; as, 
" The sun shines brightly." " The sky is clear." " Keep 
thy heart with all diligence." 

Remark. — A single sentence may be limited by any number 
of adjunct phrases ; but not by an infinitive, participial, 
or otber clause. 

2. A single sentence is Composite when it has two 
or more subjects, verbs, objects, or attributes, and is 
said to be compound in the part thus affected ; * as, 

* Two or more stibjects of thought may be present to the mind so 
that we unconsciously refer to them the same attribute or act; and 



SINGLE SENTENCES. 19 

"John and James are brothers." "Caesar came, and 
saw, and conquered." " The sky is bright and clear" 
" He purchased a book and a s/ate for thirty cents." 

Note. — Such sentences are not to be confounded with the 
compound sentence, which expresses two or more dis- 
tinct propositions. 

Any sentence may have two or more adjuncts of the same 
word; but when these are only words or phrases, they are not 
regarded in the classification. 

even when the sentence with a single predicate could be expanded into 
several distinct members, it is generally better to regard it as the expres- 
sion of a single proposition. 

There is no doubt that, for the sake of conciseness or force, or a more 
evident relation, we sometimes revise two or more Judgments before 
we formulate them in language, and suppress a common term. Indeed, 
the judgments need not have been simultaneous, but become such in ex- 
pression after review and discovery of their common relation. 

The same may be remarked of predicates affirmed of one subject, or of 
two or more combined. 

Many judgments of two or more subjects, from their very nature, forbid 
that the subj<*cts should be separated in analysis, since they are manifestly 
united in thought; thus, "John and James are brothers." " Two and 
three are five." " Henry and Thomas ran a race." 

Compound Predicates are sometimes sequences, whose force ia 
greatly impaired by the attempt, even when it is possible to separate them, 
by supplying ellipses, into distinct members. 

The argument for a classification based upon as many distinct members 
as a condensed sentence (101) is capable of being expanded into, would 
prove, if carried out legitimately, too much; for as well might two adjec- 
tives limiting the same noun require each a separate sentence for its expan- 
sion. Thus : — i ■ 

C He is a wise man 
He is a wise and good man = \ and 

' He is a good man. 

The following, as an example of the extreme view referred to, may be 
expanded into twelve sentences : — 

" With every effort, with every breath, and with every motion, — volun- 
tary or involuntary, — a part of the muscular substance becomes dead, 
separates from the living part, combines with the remaining portions of 
inhaled oxygen, and is removed." 



20 



ANALYSIS 



3. A single sentence is Complex when it contains a 
limiting clause 1 (32. 4) ; as, " Though he slay me, yet 
will I trust him." " He that giveth to the poor lendeth 
to the Lord." 

[* # * Eor discussion of limiting clauses, see (108.)~\ 

54. The Classification of Sentences is ex- 
hibited in the scheme : — 



Form , 



Declaratory. 
Interrogatory. 
Imperative. 
Exclamatory. 

f Transitive. 



Nature of 

affirmation 1 Intransitive. 

[ Attributive. 



Number of 
propositions 



Single , 



. Compound 



Simple. 

Composite 

Complex.* 



a Subject, 
| Affirmer, 
I Object, or 
o Attribute. 

{Copulative. 
Disjunctive. 
Adversative. 



I Logical sequence , 



( Causal. 
' \ Illative. 



Of the Subject. 

55. The subject of a sentence, in its most el- 
ementary form, 2 consists of a single word (a noun 
or pronoun) ; as, "Birds fly." 

56. It may be enlarged, — 

1. By prefixing adjective words as limiters ; as, 

* Having a variety of limiting- clauses. {108.) 
A. &P. Gr. — 1635. 260S. 
C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 4. s 42. I. 



THE SUBJECT. 21 

" The little birds sing sweetly." Several adjectives may 
be joined to the same noun ; as, " The beautiful little 
birds carol their sweet, glad notes." By a noun in the 
possessive case ; as, " The moorHs pale light." 

2. By an adjunct phrase ; as, " The love of 
money is the root of all evil." 

Remark. — The word which is grammatically princi- 
pal is in sense often subordinate. This is, however, gen- 
erally a weak style, and should be avoided; as, "One of the 
most remarkable events took place during the reign of this mon- 
arch." " The quality of mercy is not strained." " The body of 
water which we call the ocean surrounds the earth." 

3. By a substantive in apposition ; x as, 

" Alexander, the coppersmith, was not a friend of the 
apostle Paul." 

4. By a relative clause 2 {1 15), performing the 
office of an adjective ; as, " The boy, who came here 
yesterday, has returned." 

5. By an infinitive clause; as, "The desire 
to please, when properly directed, is praiseworthy." 

6. By a participial clause ; as, " Caesar, hav- 
ing crossed the Alps, descended into Italy." " Saving 
been deceived by false friends, he lost faith in man." 

7. By an appositive clause; as, " The hope, that 
he might at last succeed, cheered him in his toil." 

8. A grammatical subject may have several 
modifiers; as, "The brave man, who thought not of his 
own safety, having rescued the child, was applauded 
by all." 

A. &P. Gr.— ^667, 668. *255. 

C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 51. 2 13. 1. 



22 ANALYSIS. 

57. The person or thing spoken o/*, unlimited by 
other words, is called the grammatical subject. 1 

58. The logical subject is the grammatical, to- 
gether with all the words, phrases, or clauses by which 
it is limited, prior to the predication. 

Simple and Compound Subjects* 

59. The subject of a sentence may be either sim- 
ple or compound. 

1. A simple subject consists of one subject of 

thought; 2 as, "Knowledge is power." 

(a.) When the subject is limited by a clause, it is called 
complex. 

2. A compound subject consists of two or 
move simple subjects to which belongs the same pred- 
icate ; as, "John and James resemble each other." 
" Mercy and truth have met together." " Life and 
death are in the power of the tongue." 

Note. — When the predicate is common to two or more 
subjects, even in cases in which the sentence could be expanded 
into distinct propositions, it is better to regard the sentence as 
single, with a compound subject ; for granting that there 
had been in the mind of the speaker two distinct propositions, 
the very fact of his using a contracted predicate shows that in 
the mental revision, before expression, he judged the predicate 
true of both taken together. It will be found, however, that, in 
by far the greater number of instances, something in the pred- 
icate shows the fitness and necessity of the compound subject. 
The following are examples : — 

" The ambition and avarice of man are the sources of his un- 
happiness." 

A. & P. Gr. — i 608. 2 eOO. 

C. S. Qr.~ Lesson 142. 1. 242.2. 



THE PREDICATE. 23 

" Popular governments and general education, acting and re- 
acting, mutually producing and reproducing each other, are the 
mighty agencies," etc. 

" The rocks and hills of New England will remain till the last 
conflagration." 

" And the chief priests and scribes stood and vehemently ac- 
cused him." 

Of the Predicate. 

60. The predicate in its simplest form consists 
of one word-> which must be a verb ; as, " The sun 
shines" 

61. If the verb is transitive, it must be followed 
t>y an object / as, " Bees love honey." 

62. If the verb is attributive, it must be fol- 
lowed by an attribute of the subject; as, "John is 
wise" " He is a scholar." 

63. The verb in the predicate is called the af- 
firmer. 

64. The affirmer, unlimited by any other 
word, is called the grammatical predicate. 1 

65. The logical predicate 2 is the grammatical, 
together with all the words, phrases, or clauses by 
which it is limited. 

Extension of the Predicate. 

66. The predicate of a sentence may be further 
extended by limiting words, phrases, or clauses to ex- 
press circumstances of time, place, manner, cause, etc. 

A. &P. Gr.— 1619. *623. 
C. S. Gr. Lesson 1-2 45. 1. 



24 ANALYSIS. 

1. By an adverb ; as, " The sun shines brightly" 

2. By an adjunct phrase ; as, " The boy studies 
with great diligence" 

Remark. — Such adverbial phrase may in form consist of, — 

(a.) A simple prepositional phrase ; (32. 2.) 
as, "Run with patience? 

(b.) An adverb and prepositional phrase; 
as, " He fought most bravely of all" 

(c.) The leading adverb may be limited by 
another ; as, " We traveled very rapidly indeed." 

(d.) A noun phrase used adverbially ; as, 
" He rides every day" " They fought hand to hand" 

3. By a participial or infinitive clause, too 
closely allied to the principal verb to require separate 
analysis; as, "He came running" "I saw a man 
standing in the road" 

Remark. — The nominative absolute is in some sort like a 
phrase modifier, and generally indicates some circumstance or lim- 
itation of the principal verb ; or it may be regarded as a con- 
tracted form 1 of a dependent clause; as, " Our work 
being finished, we will play " — When our work is finished, etc. 

67. A variety of accompanying circumstances is 
sometimes expressed by a succession of such clauses; 
as, — 

" Me howling winds drive devious — tempest-tossed, 
Sails rent, seams opening wide, and compass lost." 

68. Any substantive 2 in the predicate may 

be- limited by any word, phrase, or clause by which the 
subject can be limited. 

A. & P. Gr. — i 650, 769-772. 2 633. 
G. S. Gr. — Lesson 1 47. 2 46- 



THE PREDICATE. 25 

Simple and Compound Predicate, 

69. The Predicate may be simple or com- 
pound. 1 

1. Two entire predicates, the second of which 
is of necessity (a) related to the first, or (b) as se- 
quences, or (c) entirely independent. 

*** In the last case it is generally better to repeat the subject, 
and form a compound sentence. 

Examples. 

(a.) " I feel your kindness, and wish for an opportunity to 
requite it." 

(&.) " The detective saw the thief in the distance, overtook 
him, captured him, and bore him to the station-house." 

(c.) " We have not always time to read, but [we] have [al- 
ways] time to reflect." 

2. The object (a), attribute (6), second ob- 
ject (c) (82), adverb, or other limiting phrase 
or clause (<#), or any principal element in such 
clause (e) may be compound. 

Examples. 

(a.) "He purchased a house and lot for his father." " God 
created the heaven and the earth" 

(b.) " He was a prince and a conqueror" " Be ye, therefore, 
wise as serpents and harmless as doves" 

(e.) "Alfred rendered his kingdom secure and happy" "I 
call him a benefactor and a friend" 

(d.) " He spoke eloquently and forcibly " " He was trusted 
5i/ fri's neighbors, and 5y a ^ w^ &?iei0 him." 

(e.) " He was not moved from his purpose by the ewry and 
opposition of his opponents." 

A. & P. Gr. — iG£5. 

<:<. s. Gr. — i Lesson 45. II. 



26 ANALYSIS. 

Remarks. — 1. The verbs in a compound predicate may be 
of the same class or of different classes ; as, — 
" He went and hanged himself." 
" He was poor, and lived in a mean house." 
" He was weary, and slept, and regained his strength." 
2. Each verb in a compound predicate may have its own 
peculiar modification of words, phrases, or clauses, just as in a 
simple sentence ; as, — 

r waiteth for the precious fruit of the 

earth, and 
hath long patience for it, until he 
receive the early and the latter 
rain. — James v. 7. 



Behold, the husbandman 



The Circumstance. 
70. The Circumstance is a word, phrase, or 
clause in the body of a sentence necessary to the 
sentence, but not to the grammatical construc- 
tion. — Dr. Mandeville. 

71* The circumstance may be in either the sub- 
ject or the predicate. 

Examples. 

" I have, with a good deal of attention, considered the subject 
referred to me." 

" There is, therefore, now, no condemnation." 

" A wife, who is said to he lovely even beyond her sex, and 
graced with every accomplishment that can render it irresistible, 
had blessed him with her love." 

The Parenthesis. 
72. A Parenthesis is a sentence or part of a 
sentence inserted in the body of another, to express 
incidental thought, but necessary neither to the struc- 
ture nor the sentence. 



THE OBJECT. — THE ATTRIBUTE. 27 

Examples. 

"Are you still (I fear you are) far from being comfortably 
settled?" 

" I therefore walked back, and repassed her with such a look 
(for I could bring myself to nothing more) as might induce her 
to speak." 

"Know ye not, brethren (for I speak to them that know the 
law), how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he 
liveth?" 

Of the Object. 

73. The principal ward in the object of a tran- 
sitive sentence is generally a noun or pvonoim. 

74. It may be limited or extended in all the ways in which 
a subject is limited. 

75. Any word or clause that can be used as a subject may 
also be used as an object (56). 

76. The object of a sentence, like the subject, is gram- 
matical or logical. 

77. It may be simple or compound. 

Of the Attribute. 

78. An Attribute is any word, phrase, or clause 
asserted of a subject, and connected with it 
by an attributive 1 verb. 

79. It is to be distinguished from an adjunct, which is 
assumed of the subject and immediately connected with it, 
as describing it prior to the affirmation made by the principal 
verb. The adjunct is an extension of the subject. The 
attribute is a part of the predicate, and limits the sub- 
ject by being affirmed of it. 

A. &P. Gr. — 1319. 

C. S. Gr. —i Lesson 16. 5. 



28 ANALYSIS. 

Adjunct : "A wise man foreseeth evil." 

"A man of good understanding loves wisdom." 

Attribute: "A man who foreseeth evil is wise." 

"A man who loves wisdom is of good understanding." 

80. The attribute may be — 

1. A noun or pronoun ; as, " John is a scholar" "It is /." 

2. An adjective] as, " Snow is white." 

3. A substantive clause : * — 

(a.) An infinitive ; as, " He is to be blamed" 

(b.) A participial; f as, " I am running ." " I am struck " 

4. Any adjective adjunct ; as, " He is in Boston" " He 
is of the earth, earthy. 

81. The leading attributive word, if a substantive, may 
be limited, like any other noun, bywords, phrases, or clauses; 
if an adjective, by adverbs, adverbial phrases, and infinitive 
and other clauses used adverbially, as, — 

" He is a man of many virtues." 

" Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, As to be hated, needs 
but to be seen." 

" Nero was, a tyrant who was feared by his people." 

" The scenes of my childhood are dear to my heart" 

" He is to be blamed for this act of cruelty." 

See (83.3. (a.)) for second objects as limiters of the attribute. 

* The attribute may be any word expressing- the place, circum- 
stance, or condition of the subject ; such as here, there, etc. After an 
attributive verb, these and similar words are properly adjectives, and 
not adverbs; as, "John is here." il John is in this place." 

f The periphrastic or progressive form of the verb, and all the forms 
of the passive voice, are properly referable in analysis to this head. 
The present and the past passive participles, when so used, may be called 
participials. Compare the following : — 

li John is sick." " John is hurt." 

il John is a scholar." " John is playing." 

In the parsing of the two last forms most teachers will, perhaps, prefer 
to adhere to the customary method. — (A. & P. Gr., 475. 2, 507.) 



SECOND OBJECTS. 29 

Indirect or Second Objects. 

82. Just as transitive (active) verbs, from the 
nature of the act they express, require an object to 
complete the sense, 1 so certain classes of verbs require 
an additional complement. This may be called 
the Indirect Object. 

83. The following are the principal cases : — 

1. An attribute of the direct object which may 
be a substantive or adjective, like the complement of 
an attributive verb ; as, — 

" He made Joseph ruler over all his house." 
" They called him John." 
" His misfortunes rendered him unhappy" 
" The judge pronounced him innocent" 
(a.) This is sometimes called the factitive object, and the 
verb to make (Latin facto, factum) is the type of the class of 
verbs that admit of this construction. 

(b.) Some verbs require the connective as before the indirect 
object; as, — 

" They regarded him as a saint." 
" They disguised him as a monk." 
Remark.— When the verb is transitive, the direct object 
becomes the subject in the passive voice, and the indirect 
object remains unchanged ; as, — 

" He was regarded as a saint." 
" He was disguised as a monk." 
(c.) The second object sometimes takes the preposition to or 

for; as, — 

" Do you take me for a miser f " 
" The lire reduced the house to ashes." 
" This shall be for a sign unto you.'* 
" The same came for a witness." 

A. &P. Gr. — *320. 1. 

C. S. Gr. — * Lesson 16, Obs. 5. 1st. 

3* 



30 ANALYSIS. 

2. Verbs of giving, teaching, and a few oth- 
ers, take an indirect object, consisting of a noun 
or pronoun with a preposition. This is 
sometimes called the dative object; as, "Give the 
book to me." 

(a.) The objective cases of the personal pro- 
nouns are used without the preposition to ; as, — 

" She presented him a house." 

" The master taught him Latin." 

" He gave me a book." 

(b.) The direct object (house, Latin, booh, in 
the preceding examples) becomes the subject in the 
passive form-, and the indirect has to expressed 
or understood. 

(c.) An anomalous usage sometimes allows the 
indirect object to become the subject in the passive 
voice, in which case we have a direct object following 
the passive verb ; x as, 

" He was taught Latin." 
" I was promised a book." 

This usage, however, is very common, and some 
forms of it are sanctioned by good authority ; as, — 

" I was told that he had gone." 

" He was asked what course to take." 

" I am informed that the house is ready." 

8. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and a few 
others, take a substantive following the preposition 
of; as, — 

" He was accused of treason " 
" I condemn myself of laziness." 

A. & P. Gr. — 1 812-814. 



SECOND OBJECTS. 31 

" They acquit him of the charge" 
" He reminds me of my promise ." 
This is called the genitive object.. 

(a.) Some adjectives similarly take a prepositional 
phrase, not simply as a limiter, but as a necessary comple- 
ment; 1 as, — 

44 He was desirous of applause." 

" There was another, large of understanding " 

" He was full of anger ." 

" A man void of sense." 

4. An infinitive or participle is often the com- 
plement of an objective case, and is, by some gram- 
marians, considered as a second object ; as, — 

" He directed the men to fire." 
" 1 advise you to take no notice of it." 
" He felt himself sinking in the mire." 
" They saw him nailed to the cross." 
(a.) We prefer, however, to regard the direct object and 
the infinitive or participle, as together expressing the 
object of a preceding verb or preposition, and then to analyze 
them as a separate infinitive or participial clause, in which the 
substantive in the objective case is the subject of the infini- 
tive or principial verb; as, — 

" He directed the men to fire." 
Subject, he; affirmer, directed; object (clause), men to 
fire. In the infinitive clause, men is the subject, to fire, the 
predicate, connected by to with its subject. (See 130.) 

(6.) The verbs bid, dare, matee, see, hear, feel, etc., 
take an infinitive after them without the sign to. 2 

5. Some intransitive verbs and adjectives 
take the indirect object ; as, — 

" They despaired of success." 
" He repented of his design." 

i Bullions & Morris's Lat. Gr., 765, 776. 
A. & P. Gr. — *877. C. S. Gr. — 2 Lesson 66, Sp. R. 5. 



32 ANALYSIS. 

" I am anxious to succeed." 
" We are tired of waiting." 

6. When the factitive idea is expressed by an in- 
transitive or passive verb, then the comple- 
ment is in the nominative ; 1 as, — 

" Lincoln became president." 
"He was appointed ambassador. 9 ' 

Examples. 

[In the following, state what words are second objects, and how they 
are used.] 

" I call the miser a poor man." 

" All regarded Socrates as a wise man." 

" Napoleon was capable of great exertion." 

" I counsel you to wait patiently." 

" He is worthy of our confidence." 

Compound Sentences. 

84. A compound sentence consists of two or 
more single sentences connected together, having no 
grammatical dependence upon each other, but 
used to express closely-related propositions ; as, " John 
studies, and James plays." " Behold, I come quickly, 
and my reward is with me." " The righteous shall 
inherit substance, but shame shall be the promotion of 
fools." 

The separate sentences are called members. 

85. The compound sentence gives greater unity and com- 
pactness to discourse, and often collects related propositions 
to express cause and effect, purpose or end, or logical 
sequence (95). 

A.&B.Gr.— 1811. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 33 

86. There are two general classes, Coordinate 
and Illative. 

87. In coordinate sentences the members have 
no logical dependence, but are connected to show- 
natural sequence of thought, comparison, contrast, etc. 
They are distinguished as, 1. Copulative ; 2. Disjunc- 
tive / 3. Adversative or Antithetic. 

1. Copulative Sentences. 

88. The Copulative sentence considers two or 
more propositions, which are taken together, having 
no actual logical dependence, but expressing a natu- 
ral sequence ; as, — 

" He that is soon angry dealeth foolishly ; and a man of wicked 
devices is hated." 

" Appoint a time for everything, and do everything in its time." 

89. (<x.) The connective is frequently omitted, and such 
omission often makes the style more vigorous. 

(h.) The following are the principal connectives in copulative 
sentences : And, also, likewise, moreover, further, both, and, as 
well as, nor, neither, etc. 

Examples of Copulative Sentences. 

" Speak the truth, and shame the devil." 

" The boy studies, and the girl plays." 

" The master teaches us ; he also directs our sports." 

" No conduct can be delicate without being correct ; nor can 
it [and it can not] be correct without being delicate." 

"The fruit of the righteous is a tree of life; and he that 
winneth souls is wise." 

"He that is soon angry dealeth foolishly; and a man of 
wicked devices is hated." 

" Appoint a time for everything, and do every tiling in its 
time." 



34 ANALYSIS. 

" Not only are the men more brave, hut the women are more 
beautiful." l 

00. The copulative sentence sometimes presents a con- 
nected series not demanded by the subject matter in hand, 
but extended at the will of the speaker ; as, — 

" Tribulation worketh patience ; and 

patience [worketh] experience ; and 
experience [worketh] hope ; and 
hope maketh not ashamed." 
Of this kind, generally, are those sentences with successive 
members containing the figure called climax. 2 

2. Disjunctive Sentences. 

01. The disjunctive, sentence expresses two or 
more propositions united together, but having their 
meaning distributed ; as, — 

" He must come to us, or we will go to him." 

" Awake ! arise ! or be for ever fallen." 

" You must assist me ; otherwise I can not succeed." 

02. Disjunctive sentences are connected by such conjunc- 
tions as either, or, neither, nor, otherwise, else, etc. 

3. Antithetic Sentences. 

93. When two assertions, in a compound sentence, 
are in contrast or opposition, such sentence is 
called antithetic, or adversative ; as, — 

" The form perishes ; the matter, however, is eternal." 
" I do not like the conditions ; nevertheless, I will accept 
them." 

04:. Antithetic sentences are usually connected by such words 
as but, however, nevertheless, only, on the one hand, on the other 
hand, yet, still. 

A. & P. Gr. — 1 567, Note. 2 1046. 11. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 35 

Examples of Antithetic Sentences. 

" Blessings are upon the head of the just; but violence cov- 
ereth the mouth of the wicked." 

" The memory of the just is blessed ; but the name of the 
wicked shall rot." 

" Hatred stirreth up strifes ; but love covereth all sins." 

" Wise men lay up knowledge ; but the mouth of the foolish 
is near destruction." 

" The simple inherit folly; but the prudent are crowned with 
knowledge." 

4. Illative Sentences* 

95. Illative sentences are those in which a second 
member stands in some logical relation to the first, to 
express a cause, conclusion, or effect : — 

1. Those which join on a member to express a cause or 
reason for what is affirmed in the first ; as, — 

" I must meet my friend to-morrow, for I have engaged to 
do so." 

" Learn of me, for I am meek and lowly in heart." 

2. To express logical conclusion, or inference ; as,— 
"Because he hath set his love upon me, therefore will I de- 
liver him." 

" I believed, therefore have I spoken." 

3. The relation of effect or consequence; as, — 
" He was honorable, hence he was respected." 

96- The connectives proper to illative sentences are, such as, 
therefore, thereupon, wherefore, consequently, hence, whence, etc. 

97* A compound sentence, in the relation of its members, 
may combine two or more of the preceding classes; as, "In 
the morning sow thy seed, and in the evening withhold not thy 
hand; for thou knowest not whether shall prosper either this 
or that, or whether both shall be alike good." (143. 16.) 

The first two members are copulative; their relation to the 
third, "for thou knowest," etc., is causal; and the third mem- 



36 ANALYSIS. 

ber, in its own structure, is complex, having a compound sen- 
tential object. (See 75.) 

98. The members of a compound sentence 
are each subject to any of the forms or modifications 
of the single sentence. 

They may be similar in structure, or dissimilar ; as, — 

_ . ( John is a good boy, 

1. Each simple. [ but James ig ^ and ^.^ 

He went away early in the 

morning, 
but I remained till my brother 

came home. 

( Joseph was industrious, 
3. Simple and composite. { but David neglected his les- 



2. Simple and complex. 



son and was punished. 
4. Two or more complex members ; as, — 
f I will go, if you desire it, 
[ but I can not remain after your brother comes. 
00. Compound sentences are sometimes made up of two or 
more compound parts or members, in pairs ; as, — 
" Swear not by heaven; for it is God's throne : 

but, 
" Let your communication be yea, yea, nay, nay; for whatso- 
ever is more than these cometh of evil." 

" He spake, and it was done ; he commanded, and it stood fast." 

" He made all things, but He is, himself, more excellent than 

all which He hath made : they are beautiful, but He is beauty ; 

they are strong, but He is strength ; they are perfect, but He is 

perfection." 

100. Two or more coordinate members may have a 

common logical sequence ; as, — 

" It is no honor to be rich, and to be poor is no sin; therefore 
it is foolish to be ashamed of poverty, or to strive after the ap- 
pearance of being rich." 



As he passed along 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 37 

Abridged Compound Sentences, 
101. A compound sentence may be abridged 
so as to contain a limiting clause common to two 
or more of its members ; as, — 

'his ears were delighted with the sweet 

song of birds ; 
all his senses were gratified, 

and 
all care was banished from his heart. 
When the sun broke forth i the lark rose to meet him, 

from the east \ and the darkness fled away. 

102 A limiting phrase may be common; as, — 

I beauty is unlovely 
and 
quality [is] contemptible. 

The following is a fine example of this kind of contracted 
compound sentence : — 

11 At his touch, crowns crumbled, beggars reigned, systems 
vanished, the wildest theories took the color of his whim, and 
all that was novel changed places with the rapidity of a drama." 

103. It is not always easy to determine whether a sentence 
with compound elements is really a single sentence, or a com- 
pound one in contracted form ; nor is it matter of great moment. 
The following are examples which may stand as types of each : — 

Single sentences. — " John and James are brothers." " The 
president and the ambassador are at variance." 

Compound sentence. — " Add to your faith, virtue; and [add] 
to virtue, knowledge." 

104:. Two or more members, having the same subjects, or 
the same predicates (either affirmer, or object, or attribute), are 
often contracted into the form of a single sentence. 
" Cagsar came and saw and conquered." 

105. More frequently, for greater force, an assertion which 
existed in the mind in compact form is extended into sev- 
eral distinct clauses, each having all its parts entire; as, 

4 



88 ANALYSTS. 

"Where is her splendor? where is her wealth? where is her 
power? where is her glory?" — "Where are her splendor, 
wealth, power, glory ? " 

106.- A single sentence may admit of expansion, but 
become thereby less forceful; as, — 

" Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution." 

Expanded. — " Exercise strengthens the constitution, and 
temperance strengthens the constitution." 

" Life and death are in the power of the tongue." 

107 > A compound sentence may be contracted to 
gain force by conciseness ; as, — 

"And besides this, giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue ; 
and to virtue, knowledge ; and to knowledge, temperance ; and 
to temperance, patience; and to patience, godliness; and to god- 
liness, brotherly kindness ; and to brotherly kindness, charity." 

Such sentence, when only a part of the subject or predicate 
is omitted, does not thereby become a single sentence. 

Clauses in Complex Sentences. 

108. A simple sentence, or at least its matter or 
substance, may be used in a dependent way as an 
element of another sentence * 1 ; as, — 

Independent sentence. — u He [Caesar] crossed the Rubicon." 
" Caesar marched against Rome, when he had crossed the 
Rubicon." 

* Judgments are actual or represented. 

JLctual judgments are such as are thought by the speaker. They are 
expressed in sentences. 

Represented judgments are such as are not so thought by the 
speaker, but only represented by him. They are expressed in clauses. 

A sentence is the verbal expression of an actual judgment; as, "The 
duties of governments are paternal." 

A clause is the verbal expression of a represented judgment; as, " Mr. 
Gladstone conceives that the duties of governments are paternal. Evil, 
indeed, must be the disease which is not more tolerable than such medicine." 
— Day's Art of Composition. 

A. &P. Gr. — 1591.Z. 
C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 41. 3. 



CLAUSES IN COMPLEX SENTENCES. 39 

109. This sentence is complex, and the clause, " when he 
had crossed the Rubicon," is used, not for its own sake, but to 
tell the time of the action expressed by the principal sentence, 
" Caesar marched against Rome." 

110. Such a subordinate, or secondary sentence, called 
a clause (32. 4), can not stand by itself, since it contains some 
conditional word, as " when," showing its dependence. 1 

111. Dependent clauses may be classified, — 

1. According to their form. 

2. According to their office. 

Forms of Clauses. 

112. In their form, clauses are pr oppositional, rel- 
ative^ infinitive, and participial. 

113. A propositional clatise contains a dis- 
tinct proposition, used generally as the (a) subject or 
(b) object of the principal sentence ; as, — 

(a.) " That his loss will be deeply felt is admitted by all who 
knew him." 

(b.) " Ye know not that your enemy is at hand." 

114. It may be the object of a preposition^ 

and, as such, limits the antecedent term ; as, — 

" His success will depend upon what he has the courage to 
undertake." 

115. A relative clause limits the antecedent 
of the relative ; as, — 

" The man whom you would select should possess all of these." 

116. An infinitive clause contains a verb in 
the infinitive mood. It may be the subject of a verb, 
the object of a verb or preposition, the limiter 

i Bullions & Morris's UCt. Gr.— 1066. 



40 ANALYSIS. 

or second object, or it may express the purpose 
or end of a preceding affirmation. See (136.) 1 

117. It comprises the subject of the infinitive (83. 4. (a), 
if that be expressed; as, — 

" He ordered the boy to be beaten." " The man intended to 
take the next train." 

118. A participial clause consists of a par- 
tible with its subject, and the other words depending 

on it ; as, — 

" The ambassador, having performed his mission, returned." 
" I saw him leading a horse over the bridge" 

119. According to the office they perform in a 
sentence, clauses are of two kinds, substantive 
[or nominal] and adjunctive. 

Substantive Clauses. 

120. A substantive clause performs the office 
of a noun ; as, — 

" That the soldier fights bravely is evident." 

" That I said this, is most true." 

"To play is pleasant." 

" Riding on horseback affords wholesome exercise." 

" Caesar says that the soldier fights bravely " 

121. The nominal or substantive clause may 
have the following relations : — 

1. As subject of a verb ; as, — 

" That the cause is lost, can not be denied." 

" To be diligent in a good cause is praiseworthy." 

" Buying goods on credit has ruined many a man." 

2. As an object (a) of a verb, (b) of a preposition, (V) of an 
adjective ; as, — 

A. & P. Gr. — 1038. 2, 6; 865, 889. 
C.S.Gr. — i Lesson 66. 



CLAUSES IN COMPLEX SENTENCES. 41 

(a.) " Thou knowest that Hove thee" 

(b.) " It depends on how soon the moon rises" 

(c.) " I am anxious that you should succeed." * 

3. As an attribute ; as, — 

4 * His advice was, that I should go." 

4. As a noun in apposition ; as, — 

" The belief that he is innocent, comforts me." 
Remarks. — 1. When the infinitive, with a subject in the 
Objective case, 1 is used as the subject of a proposition, it is 
introduced by the particle for ; as, " For us to lie, is base." 

2. When a clause, consisting of & finite verb 2 and its sub- 
ject, is used as the subject of a proposition, it is introduced by 
the conjunction that ; as, " That men should lie, is base." 

3. When an infinitive or propositional clause, as the subject, 
follows the verb, the pronoun it precedes it, referring to the 
subject; 3 as, "It is base that men should lie" "It is base to 
lie" " It is base for us to lie" 

122. Adjunctive clauses are either adnominal 
or adverbial. 

Adnominal Clauses. 

123. An adnominal clause may limit any 
word which can be limited by an adjective / as fol- 
lows : — 

1. The subject ; as, — 

" The book which I bought cost a dollar." 

2. The object ; as, — 

" Have you seen the man who came this morning ? " 

3. Any extension of subject or predicate ; as, — 
" He went in the steamer which sailed yesterday." 

124:. The adnominal clause is most commonly (a) relative, 
but may be (b) infinitive, (c) participial, or (cT) proposi- 
tional (in apposition) ; as, — 

* In this case, second object after anxious. See (83. 5.) 
A. &P. Gr. — 1872. *761. 3 246.2,3. 
C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 66, Sp. R. 3. 2 56. Exp. 

4* 



42 ANALYSIS. 

(a.) "The book which I bought is of great value." 

" They caught the thief who robbed the bank." 

(b.) " The desire to do good is present with me." 

u The conclusion to be reached was evident." 

(c.) " Having seen the king they departed." 

"I saw the sun rising in the east" 

id.) "The belief that the world is a sphere is of modern 
origin." " I am of opinion that he will succeed." 

(1.) The relative is frequently omitted ; as, — " The home 
I left was a happy one." 

(2.) The antecedent is frequently omitted; as, " Whom 
the Lord loveth he chasteneth." See (153.) 

Adverbial Clauses. 

125. The adverbial clause maybe used wher- 
ever a simple adverb is allowable. 

1. It is generally a limiter of the predicate. 

2. When it is introduced by a conjunctive adverb, 1 it is 
sometimes used as an attribute. In this case, it is better to 
regard the whole clause as adnominal. (80. 3. Note.) Compare 
the following : — 

" The book is there." 

" The book is where Heft it." 

" The book is in the place in which Heft it." 

126. The following are examples of the most usual 
forms of adverbial clauses : — 

1. Relating to time, in which there are three distinctions : 
time (a) when, (S) how long, and (c) repetition. Each of 
these may consider the time referred to in the leading propo- 
sition as simidtaneous, antecedeyit, or subsequent. 
(a.) " He was there when his father came." 

" I went away before the messenger arrived." 
" He arrived after the accident occurred." 

A. &P. Gr. — 1554. 

C. S. Gr.—i Lesson 31. Obs. 6. 



CLAUSES IN COMPLEX SENTENCES. 43 

(£.) " He remained there whilst the session lasted" 

" I waited until lie came" 

" I have been here since you left" 
(c.) " He goes to the city as often as he can" 

2. Relating to place : (a) rest in, (b) motion to, (c) motion 
from ; as, — 

(a.) " He lived where his father lived" 
(6.) " Whither I go ye can not come.'* 
(?.) " He returned whence he had gone" 

3. Relating to manner : (a) comparison, (b) relation, (c) 
effect or consequence ; as, — 

(a.) " He works as if he were in earnest." 

(b.) " The more we investigate, the more we desire to know." 

" My father is wiser than I" 
(c.) " I am so weary that lean go no farther " 

4. Various relations of cause : (a) reason, (b) condition, 
(c) concession, (d) purpose or end ; as, — 

(a.) " I forgave thee all that debt, because thou desiredst me" 
(b.) " He will certainly succeed, if he persevere" 
(c.) " Much as it may cost, it is worth the sacrifice." 
(c?.) " Love not sloth, lest thou come to poverty " 
" He periled his life to save his country" 

Connectives. 

127. The connectives which unite the subordi- 
nate clause to the principal are contimiative con- 
junctions, 1 relative pronouns, and a few 
conjunctive adverbs, 2 such as where, whether, 
whence, as soon as, when, whilst, etc. 

128. The principal continuative conjunctions are: 
after, although, as. as if, because, except, however, if, lest, pro- 
vided, save, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, whether, 
whereas, 

129. The following classification shows the differ- 

A. & P. Gr. — 1 566. 2. 2 534, 

C. S. Gr. — 2 Lesson 31, Obs. 6. 



44 



ANALYSIS. 



ent kind of clauses, both as to their form or struc- 
ture, and their office : — 

Classification of Clauses. 

' Subject (1). 

'Propositioned .... used as \ 3 ec " \ )• 

Attribute (3). 

In apposition (4). 

Relative Adjunct (5). 

'Subject (6). 
Object (7). 



Infinitive *| 
^ Participial J 



Nominal . . 
(Substantive) 



Attribute (8). 
Apposition (9). 
b Purpose, etc. (10). 



Adverbial 



Subject (11). 
Attribute (12). 

f Direct (13). 

Object \ Indirect (14). 

[Object of Adj. (15). 
h Apposition (16). 

f Subject (17). 

Adnominal Adjunct of J Object (18). 

[Extension (19). 
f When (20-22) "j ( Simultaneous. 

' Time J How long (23-25) \ \ Antecedent. 
[Repetition (26-28) J [ Subsequent. 

{Rest in (a place) (29). 
Motion to " (30). 

Motion from " (31). 
{Comparison (32). 
Relation (33). 
Effect or consequence (34). 
' Ground or reason (35). 
Condition (36). 
Concession (37). 
.Purpose or end (38.) # 
*** The figures in parentheses in the preceding table refer to 
corresponding figures for examples in {ISO) following. 



Place 



Manner 



Cause 



CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSES. 



45 



130. In the double classification presented above, it is evi- 
dent that any example of a clause coming under the first ten (as 
to form), would represent also one of the kinds (" according 
to office") from 11 to 38, inclusive. 



1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 



Examples. 

1 That I said so, is most true." 

I He saw that the cause was lost. 19 
• The charge is, that he has defrauded his creditors" 

I I am of the opinion that you will succeed." 
1 He confirms a use who destroys an abuse" 
1 To obey is to enjoy." 
' Boys love" to play." 
' You are to blame." 
' The end I propose — to establish him in business — I 

will carry out." 

10. " I come to bury Ccesar, not to praise him" 

11. " 'Dust thou art, to dust returnest, 1 was not spoken of 
the soul." 

12. " He seems to enjoy the sport." 

13. "He believed that it was wrong" 

14. "I desired him to go" l " He is anxious to succeed" 

15. "I am anxious that you should go." 

16. " The thought, that he is safe, consoles me.' 

17. " He, whom thou lovest, is sick." 

18. " He bought the farm of which his friend spoke" 

19. " We found him in the house that he formerly occupied" 

20. "He left home just as the news arrived." 

21. " The messenger came before we expected him." 

22. "I arrived at the depot after the train had left. 19 

23. " The boy came whilst I was waiting " 

24. " He staid in the city until the meeting broke up." 

25. " He has been here ever since his brother came." 

26. " The inebriate yields to his appetite as often as he is 
tempted. 11 



A. &P. Gr. — 1874. 



46 ANALYSIS. 

27. " I repeated the act as often as I had been directed." 

28. " He changes his business oftener than his friends will 
approve" 

29. " I will go wherever you desire" 

30. " Whither I go, ye can not come." 
81. " He returned whence he had gone" 

32. " He succeeds, as his father did" 

33. " The more he is opposed, the more earnest he becomes." 

34. " The onset was so sudden that we could not resist it" 

35. " Because I tell you the truth, are you offended? " 

36. " If any man love me, he will keep my word." 

37. " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." 

38. *' Improve the hours of youth, that your manhood may 
be honorable" 

Abridged and Extended Sentences. 

131. 1. A dependent clause may often be abridged l by 

omitting the connective, and changing the finite verb for the 
infinitive or participle, or for an equivalent word — 

noun, adjective, or adverb.* 

* 1. The participle in the abridged clause will stand either with its sub- 
stantive in the case absolute (A. & P. Gr., 769), or as a modifier of the 
leading subject. Thus, Absolute: "When the boys have finished their 
lessons, we will play; " abridged, " The boys having finished their lessons, 
we will play." As a modifier: " When we have finished our lessons, we 
will play; " abridged, " Having finished our lessons, we will play." Pas- 
sively and absolutely .• " When our work is finished, we will play ; " abridged, 
" Our work being finished, we will play." 

2. When the attribute, in the dependent clause, consists of a noun or 
pronoun in the nominative case after a verb as a copula, it remains in the 
same case in the abridged form. Thus : " That he is a judge, is of no con- 
sequence; " abridged, " His being a judge, is of no consequence." " I was 
not aware that he was a, judge ; " abridged, " I was not aware of his being 
& judge." 

3. The difference between these two modes of expression is this : in the 
full form, the idea contained in the dependent clause is affirmed ; in the 
abridged form, it is assumed. 

4. When the dependent clause is the object of the verb in the leading 

A. &P. Gr. — 1649. 



ABRIDGED AND EXTENDED SENTENCES. 47 

2. In like manner, a simple sentence may be eocpatlded 
into a complex by the use of an equivalent clause. 

3. The nature of the discourse will generally determine which 
is the better form. 

Examples. 
" Industry is commendable." 
" To be industrious is commendable." 
il That a man be industrious is commendable." 
" A diligent boy will succeed." 
" For a boy to be diligent will insure him success." 
" A boy who is diligent will succeed." 
" That a boy is diligent gives hope of his success." 
" The man is there still." 
" The man is where he was a while ago." 
44 The man is in the same place in which he was." 

Exercises. 
Expand the following simple sentences : — 
"Virtuous youth brings forward flourishing manhood." 
44 Brave soldiers never desert their colors." 
14 Just men alone are free ; the rest are slaves." 

clause, it may often be changed for the infinitive -with a subject ; as, " I 
know that he is a scholar; " abridged, " I know him to be a scholar." 

5. When, in such cases, the subject of the dependent clause is the 
same as the subject of the principal, it.is omitted in the abridged form; as, 
" I wished that I might go ; " abridged, " I wished to go." 

6. When the subject of the dependent clause, connected by what, which, 
vihotn, when, where, how, and the like, and relating to something yet future, 
is the same as that of the independent one, it is sometimes abridged 
by retaining the connecting word and omitting the subject before the in- 
finitive; as, " I know not what I shall do ; " abridged, " I know not what 
to do." In this way are to be analyzed and explained such phrases as, 
44 ivhere to go," " when to read," " how to do," " whom to send," etc. 

7. Several dependent clauses may be variously connected with the 
same leading clause, and abridged in the same manner as above; as, " When 
they arrived at the station, they were informed that the cars had passed an 
hour before; " abridged, "Having arrived [or, on arriving] at the station, 
they were informed of the cars having passed an hour before." i 

A. & P. Gr. — i 650-655. 



48 • ANALYSIS. 

" He returned home at sundown." 
" The cock crows in the morning " 

" The Revolutionary war resulted in the independence of the 
British colonies." 

Abridged Sentences. 
Extend the following abridged simple sentences into compound 

sentences : — 

" Having doubled Cape Horn, we sailed in a direct course for 

California." 

" What to do I know not." 

" No one can tell us where to go, or what to do." 

" The war being at an end, the troops were disbanded." 

" At the close of navigation, many will be at a loss where to go." 

" The industrious and capable need fear no want." 

" A good name is the richest possession we have while living, 

and the best legacy we leave behind us when dead." 

" Of his having been successful we have full assurance." 
'■• Of his being successful now, there is reason to doubt." 
" We hold these truths to be self-evident." 

132. Expand the following proverbs into equiva- 
lent compound or complex sentences, by changing the 
phraseology : — 

" A good maxim is never out of season/' 

" Affected simplicity is refined imposture." 

" A desire for admiration is the offspring of vanity." 

" A careless watch invites a vigilant foe." 

" Anger and haste hinder good counsel." 

" A flatterer is a most dangerous enemy." 

" Affected superiority mars good fellowship." 

" Better to live well than long." * 

* " We live in deeds, not years; in thoughts, not breaths; 
In feelings, not in figures on a dial; — 
We should count time by heart-throbs. He most lives 
Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best." — Bailey. 
" That life is long which answers life's great end." — Young. 



POSITION OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 49 

133. The complex sentence admits of great 

Variety of structure. 

1. It may consist, in its most elementary form, of one lead- 
ing clause, limited as a whole, or in any of its elements, by 
one dependent clause ; as, — 

" Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." 

2. One leading clause, limited by tivo or more de- 
pendent clauses of similar relation ; as, — 

a Though the fig-tree shall not blossom, neither shall fruit be 
in the vine; though the labor of the olive shall fail, etc., yet I 
will rejoice in the Lord." 

3. A series of dependent clauses may each modify the pre- 
ceding ; as, " We trusted | that it was he | which should have 
redeemed his people | from the Roman yoke | under which they 
had so long groaned." 

Note. — A compound sentence may be complex, so 

that each of its members may be limited by the same dependent 
clause, or by several dependent clauses in common. 

Position of Dependent Clauses. 

134. In complex sentences containing conditional 
adverbial clauses, the dependent clause gen- 
erally stands first, and if relating to the same person 
named as subject, attribute, object, or second object, 
may contain the principal word — the pronoun 
being used in the leading member ; as, — 

"As Ccesar loved me, I weep for him." 

" If any man love me, he will keep my word." 

" If you like the picture, you may take it." 

" When he had found one pearl, he sold all that he had, and 
bought it." 

Phrases also follow the same law; as, — 

" By f or getf alness of injuries, we show ourselves superior 
to them." 

" By seeing the liases and prejudices of others, we may be 
led to correct our own." 
5 



50 ANALYSIS. 

Comparative Clauses. 

135- In comparative sentences, the terms 
of the second member correspond with those of the 
first in the relation they bear to each other. 

When the second member is elliptical, the term 
expressed follows the case of the corresponding 
term in the first ; * as, — 

" It becomes the throned monarch better than his crown (be- 
comes him)." 

" A good name is better than great riches (are)." 

" He honored the servant more than the master." 

" The servant was more honored by the king than his master." 

This is ambiguous. It may mean, — 

" He honored the servant more than he honored the mas- 
ter ; " or, — 

" He honored the servant more than the master honored him 
(the servant)." 

Such construction is to be avoided. 

" I respect her more than (I respect him) him" 

" I respect her more than (he respects her)." 

In the case of pronouns, as above, this construction is less 
objectionable, as the form will generally determine the case, and 
hence, the sense. 

Infinitive and Participial Clauses. 

13G. In our present use of language, the chief office of the 
infinitive mood is that of a verbal noun, whilst the par- 
ticiple is generally little more than an adjective. 

1. But these forms of the verb never entirely lose their char- 
acter as true verbs, and have always a subject expressed 
or understood. 

2. Sometimes this subject is unimportant or not known, the 
infinitive or participle being used merely as the name of a 

A. &P. Gr. — ^965. 



INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPIAL CLAUSES. 51 

general act ; but in many instances the relation of these parts 
of the verb to a subject is as obvious and necessary as that of 
any other mood. 

3. In the active voice (form) the name of the actor is the 
subject of the verb. In the passive, the name of the re- 
ceiver of the act; as, "I saw him walking." " He ordered 
the men to fire." " He ordered a halt to be made." " (Being) 
Admired and applauded, he became vain." 

4. In these examples, manifestly, him is the subject of walk- 
ing ; men of to fire ; halt of to be made ; and he of admired and 
applauded. 

137. Each of these words has also its proper relation to 
some finite verb, as is obvious from the structure of the sen- 
tences ; and they, in some sense, unite the principal verb with 
the infinitive or participle. 

138. In the discussion of the infinitive, some prefer to 
regard to (the sign) as a preposition, uniting the infinitive 
verb, as the name of an act, to some preceding verb, noun, or ad- 
jective. But even in this view that relation is, generally, 
through a subject expressed or implied. 

139. The case of the subject of an infinitive or 

participle is determined by the relation of the word to the 
rest of the sentence, as subject or object of a verb, object of 
a preposition, or limiter [possessive case]. 1 

140. When the subject of the infinitive is important, it is 
always, — 

1. In the nominative case, when it is the same as that 
of the principal verb ; as, " /intend to go." 

2. In the objective case in all other instances ; as, " The 
master told him to study." , 

3. The subject of a participle is the substantive which 
the participle limits in whatever case ; as, — 

" Repenting of his design, he abandoned the project." 
" Having chartered a boat, they sailed for Savannah." 
" Defeated in the engagement, he resigned his commission." 



A. &P. Gr.— 1896. 

C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 67, Sp. R. 1. 



52 ANALYSIS. 

" I saw him running at full speed." 
" He saw me ruined, and helped me." 
" He spoke to a man standing by the wayside." 
" Joseph's having been sold by his brethren was overruled for 
good." * 

141. Directions for Analysis. 

I. Tell the kind of sentence : — 

1. Single or compound (and class of either). 

2. Transitive, intransitive, or attributive. 

3. Declaratory, interrogatory, imperative, or exclam- 
atory. 

Note. — If compound, or containing a limiting clause, the 
two last particulars (2 and 3) should be stated of the members 
or clauses separately. 

4. If composite, name the parts that are com- 
pound (53. 2). 

5. If complex, the principal sentence and 

the limiting clause or clauses. 

6. If compound, name the members and their 
relation to each other. 

7. State the larger relations first. Thus, in the 
following compound sentence, of two members, the first 
embraces all down to the semicolon, the second the 
remainder of the sentence : — 

" If thou doest well, thou shalt be accepted; if thou doest not 
well, sin lieth at the door." 

8. Treat each member of a compound sentence 

as a single sentence. 

9. State the logical subject (58), and the logi- 
cal predicate (65). 

II. 1. Name the grammatical subject. 

A. &P. Gr.— 1841. 



MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 53 

2. The clauses which modify it. 

3. The phrases and words by which it is modified. 

4. The clauses, phrases, or words, by which any of the 
preceding modifiers are modified (until the analysis has ex- 
tended to each sentential element). See (57.) 

III. 1. Name the grammatical predicate 

(principal verb). 

2. If transitive, the grammatical object. 

3. If attributive, the principal word in the attribute. 

4. Name the second object {82), if any. 

5. The clauses modifying any leading or complement 
tary element in the predicate. 

6. The phrases and words used as modifiers. 

7. The clauses, phrases, and words by which any of 
the preceding modifiers are modified. 

Note. — Some prefer to regard transitive [ ? and attributive] 
sentences as consisting of three parts — subject, predi- 
cate, and object [attribute]. The differences in nomenclature 
and method, necessary to this usage, will readily suggest them- 
selves. 

IV. Parse eacJi word according to the " models 
for parsing." (1 79.) 

When considerable skill has been acquired, the language both 
of analysis and parsing may be much abbreviated. 

142. Models of Analysis. 

1. Virtuous youth gradually brings forward flourishing 
manhood. 

This is a single, transitive, declaratory sentence [simple]. 

The subject is, virtuous youth ; the predicate is, gradually 
brings forward flourishing manhood. 

The principal element in the subject [grammatical subject] is 
youth, limited by the adjective adjunct virtuous. 

The principal element in the predicate [affirmer] is the transi- 
tive verb brings, whose object is manhood. Brings is limited by 
5 # 



54 ANALYSIS. 

the adverbs gradually and forward ; manhood, by the adjective 
flourishing . 

2. He that giveth to the poor, lendeth to the Lord. 

This is a single sentence, declaratory, complex, having the 
limiting clause, that giveth to the poor. 

The subject is, he that giveth to the poor ; the predicate is, 
lendeth to the Lord. 

The principal element in the subject is, he [no antecedent 
expressed, meaning any one], limited by the relative clause, 
that giveth to the poor, as an adnominal adjunct. 

The principal element in the predicate is lendeth, limited by 
the prepositional phrase, to the Lord, as an adverbial adjunct. 

In the relative clause, the subject is that, referring to its 
antecedent he; the predicate, giveth to the poor, in which the 
principal element is giveth, limited by the adverbial adjunct, to 
the poor. 

3. Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. 

This is a single, transitive, declaratory sentence ; composite, 
having a compound subject — " exercise and temperance." The 
subject is unlimited [or, the grammatical and logical subjects 
are the same]. The predicate is strengthen the constitution, in 
which the grammatical predicate [or aflirmer] is strengthen, 
limited by the object, constitution. 

I whets the appetite, 
and 
gives a relish to pleasure. 

This is a single sentence, composite; the predicate is com- 
pound. 

The subject is business. The first predicate is, whets the appe- 
tite, in which whets is the aflirmer, limited by the object word 
appetite, which is designated by the article the. 

The second predicate consists of the aflirmer, gives, limited 
by the adverbial adjunct to pleasure ; object, relish, limited by a. 

Similarly analyze the following : — 
begins with folly, 

5. Anger- and 

h ends with repentance. 



MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 55 

f ready to hear, 

6. Be \ careful to construe, 

I and slow to advise. 

A single, imperative sentence, composite, with three attributes. 

The subject is not expressed [thou or ye understood]. 

The attributive verb [copula] is be. Each attributive consists 
of an adjective word {ready, etc.), limited by an infinitive verb 
as second object {83. 5). 

7. He ordered the boy to study his lesson. 

A single sentence, complex. The subject is he; predicate, 
ordered the boy to study his lesson. The principal verb is 
ordered, limited by the infinitive clause, the boy to study, etc., 
in which boy is the subject, to study the verb [transitive], and 
his lesson the object. 1 {83. 4. a.) 

8. If the spirit of him, that raised up Jesus from the dead, 
dwell in you, \ he that raised up Christ from the dead, shall also 
quicken your mortal bodies, by his spirit that dwelleth in you. 

A single, declaratory, sentence ; complex. 
Primarily, it consists of a leading clause, "he that raised up 
Christ," etc. [to the end of the sentence], and a dependent, con- 
ditional [adverbial] clause, " If the spirit" [to the vertical line]. 
The leading clause is further limited: 1. he is limited by the 
relative clause [adnominal], "that raised up Christ from the 
dead ;" 2. spirit, by the relative clause, that dwelleth in you. 

The conditional clause (introduced and connected to the prin- 
cipal by the particle if) is limited by the relative clause, that 
raised up Jesus from the dead. 

Note. — Analyze each clause, further, as if it were a simple 
sentence. 

r the fig-tree shall not blossom, \ 
neither shall fruit be in the vines ; 
the labor of the olive shall fail, \ 
and the fields shall yield no meat ; 
the flock shall be cut off from the fold, \ 
and there shall be no herd in the stalls 






I will rejoice 
in the Lord ; 
I will joy in 
the God of my 
salvation. 



A. &P. Gr. -1873. 



56 



ANALYSIS. 



A compound sentence, complex, containing two leading clauses 
— 1 will rejoice, I %vill joy — and three subordinate clauses in 
pairs [each compound in structure], conjointly limiting each of 
the principal clauses. The connectives are the corresponding 
conjunctions, although and yet. 

Further analysis of each clause as a single sentence. 

10. When your fear cometh as desolation, and your destruc- 
tion cometh as a whirlwind ; when distress and anguish cometh 
\_come~\ upon you ; then shall they call upon me, but I will not 
answer ; they shall seek me early, but they shall not find me. 

This may be arranged as follows : — 

fyour fear cometh as desolation, 1 f (they ghall caU 

Whenj and J but 

^your destruction cometh as a ll will not answer; 

whirlwind; i then J [and] 

f distress ^ f they shall seek me early, 

When \ and \ cometh upon you; . . i but 

[anguish J Uhey shall not find me. 

A compound sentence, complex in structure, with two inde- 
pendent leading members [copulative, connective omitted], each 
antithetic; limited by three subordinate clauses [same as in 
No. 9, above]. 



14=3. Examples for Analysis. 

Analyze the following : — 

1. " Because he hath set his love upon me, | therefore will I 

deliver him ; because he hath known my name, [therefore] I will 

set him on high." — Ps. xci. 14. 

' there shall no evil 

befall thee, 
neither 
shall any plague 

come nigh 

thy dwelling. 

3. " When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice; 

but 
when the wicked beareth rule, the people mourn." 



2. Because thou hast made the 

Lord, even the Most High, thy habitation, 

who is my refuge, 



EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. 



57 



4. When my spirit shall be wafted 

to a more friendly port ; 
When my shade shall have joined the bands 

of those martyred heroes 
who have shed their blood 

{on the scaffold and 
in the field j 



this is my hope. 



5. If self must be denied, 
and 
[if] sin [must be] forsaken quite, 



f [then] They rather choose the 
way that's wide, 
and 
[They] strive to think it 
right. 



6. "Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty; open thine 
eyes, and thou shalt be satisfied with bread." 

7. " If, when we were enemies, we were reconciled to God by 
the death of his Son, much more, being reconciled, we shall be 
saved by his life." 

(1) We shall be saved by his life 

being reconciled (a) | much more 

(2) if we were reconciled to God by the death of his Son, 
(3) when we were enemies. 

8. " There was a time, when such was the spirit of Rome, that 
the resentment of her magnanimous sons more sternly crushed 
the Roman traitor, than the most inveterate enemy." 

A time was, 



when the spirit of Rome was such .... 
.... that the resentment .... crushed . 



. the Roman traitor, 



of her magnanimous sons, 



than . 



» more sternly 



[it crushed] the most inveterate enemy. 

" The mind, indeed, enlightened from above, 
Views Him in all, ascribes to the grand cause 
The grand effect, acknowledges with joy 
His manner, and with rapture tastes his style ; 
But never yet did philosophic tube, 

(1.) Principal sentence. 

(2.) Adjunct of principal. 

(3.) Adjunct of adjunct sentence. 

(a.) Adjunct of subject [participial clause]. 



58 



ANALYSIS. 



That brings the planets home into the eye 
Of observation, and discovers, else 
Not visible, his family of worlds, 
Discover Him that rules them." 



The mind, .... 

enlightened (indeed) 
from above, 



views . . . 
ascribes . 



. Him in all, 
. . the grand effect 



to the grand cause, 
acknowledges .... his manner 



with joy, 



and 



Philosophic tube 



that 



that rules them. 



tastes .... his style; 

with rapture; 

but, 

. . . did discover never yet Him 

' brings .... the planets 

home into the eye .... 

of observation, 
and discovers .... his family of worlds 

else not visible. 
10. " It was the spirit of liberty which still abides on earth, and 
has its home in the bosoms of the brave, which but yesterday, 
in beautiful France, restored their violated charter ; which even 
now burns brightly on the towers of Belgium, and has rescued 
Poland from the tyrant's grasp ; making their sons, ay, and their 
daughters, too, the wonder and admiration of the world, the pride 
and glory of the human race ! " 

( abides, still, on earth 
r which J and [brave, 

[has its home in the bosoms of the 
which.... restored their violated charter, but 
yesterday, in beautiful France, 
burns brightly, even now, on the 
towers of Belgium, 
and 
has rescued Poland from the tyrant's 
grasp ; t 

the admiration of the 
world, 

tll ef p r d e i^-- 

L glory J 



It was the spirit of liberty - 



, which 



making ■ 



' their sons, 

(ay) and 
„ their daughters, too, ] 2 



man race. 



EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. 59 

11. " No effeminate nobility crowded into the dark and austere 
ranks of the Pilgrims ; no Carr nor Villiers would lead on the 
ill-provided band of the despised Puritans ; no well-endowed 
clergy were on the alert to quit their cathedrals, and set up a 
pompous hierarchy in the frozen wilderness ; no craving gov- 
ernors were anxious to be sent over to our cheerless El Dorados 
of ice and snow : no ; they could not say they had encouraged, 
patronized, or helped the Pilgrims : their own cares, their own 
labors, their own counsels, their own blood, contrived ail, 
achieved all, bore all, sealed all." 

No effeminate nobility .... crowded , , _ . 
J s—^—^ f dark 1 

into the^ and pranks of the Pilgrims; 
lausterej 
f Carr -\ K 

noK nor > would lead on the ill-provided band 

tVilliersJ m r-^ . , _ . A 

of the despised Puritans; 
no well-endowed clergy .... were^ r to quit their cathedrals, 

on the alert j and 

Lset up a pompous hierarchy 

in a frozen wilderness ; 

no craving governors .... were anxious to be sent over 

to our cheerless El Dorados 

of ice and snow : 
no; 

I had encouraged, 1 
Pt ' ,• the Pilgrims, 

helped J 

Their own cares *\ . . r contrived all, 
their own labors I . . J achieved all, 
their own counsels [ . . 1 bore all, 
their own blood J • • I sealed all. 

12. " Shall an inferior magistrate, a governor who holds his 
power of the Roman people, in a Roman province, within sight 
of Italy, bind, scourge, torture with fire and red-hot plates of 
iron, and, at last, put to the infamous death of the cross, a Ro- 
man citizen ? " 



60 



ANALYSIS. 



An inferior magistrate, .... shall 
a governor, .... 

who holds his power 



I of the Roman people, 
i in a Roman province, 
[within sight of Italy, 




with fire and red hot plates 



of iron, 
and (at last) 
put to the infamous death 

of the cross, 



13. " Shall neither the cries of innocence, expiring in agony, 
nor the tears of pitying spectators, nor the majesty of the Roman 
commonwealth, nor the fear of the justice of his country, re- 
strain the licentious and wanton cruelty of a monster, who, in 
confidence of his riches, strikes at the root of liberty, and sets 
mankind at defiance ? " 

.... neither .... 
The cries 
of innocence, expiring in agony, 

nor 
the tears of pitying spectators, I shall restrain . 

nor 
the majesty of the Roman commonwealth, 

nor 
the fear of the justice of his country, 
r licentious >> 
.... the < and v cruelty of a monster . , 



L wanton 

.... who, 

in confidence of his riches, 






f strikes at the root of liberty, 

and 
I sets mankind at defiance ! 



14. Had they informed themselves of all the 

circumstances, hazards, and demands of 

the enterprise before engaging in it (a) ; 
had they, after engaging in it (&), listened 

to the advice of those who were better 

informed than themselves; or, 
had they withdrawn from it, 

when they discovered .... 
.... the obstacles to its success ; 

(1.) This is a single complex sentence, containing one lead- 



they might have escaped 
dishonor. 



(a) Limits informed. 



(b) Limits listened. 



EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. 61 

ing clause, and three subordinate, adverbial clauses, each of 
which is itself limited by a second subordinate. 

(2.) A compound sentence, on the other hand, must have at 
least two leading clauses, which may, however, be limited, in the 
abridged form, by only one subordinate clause ; as, — 
I have built a house, -^ 

and L since you were here, 

my brother has sold his farm, J 

15. " In the morning sow thy seed, and in the evening withhold 
not thy hand ; for thou knowest not whether shall prosper either 
this or that, or whether both shall be alike good." 



for thou know- 
est not . . . 



I either"| 
> shall prosper 
that J 
or 
whether both shall be alike good. 



Sow thy seed 

in the morning, 

and 
withhold not thy hand 

in the evening; 

(a.) A compound sentence, consisting of two copulative mem- 
bers, and one in causal relation. The latter is complex, having 
the compound, sentential object (subordinate), " whether either 
this or that .... alike good." 

16. " When my eyes shall be turned to behold, for the last 
time, the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken 
and dishonored fragments of a once glorious Union ; on states 
dissevered, discordant, belligerent; on a land rent with civil 
feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal blood ! let their last 
feeble and lingering glance, rather, behold the gorgeous ensign 
of the Eepublic, now known and honored throughout the earth, 
still full high advanced ; its arms and trophies streaming in their 
original luster ; not a stripe erased or polluted, nor a single star 
obscured ; bearing for its motto no such miserable interrogatory 
as, What is all this worth? nor those other words of delusion 
and folly, Liberty first, and Union afterward; but, everywhere, 
spread all over in characters of living light, blazing on all its 
ample folds, as they float over the sea and over the land, and in 
every wind under the whole heavens, that other sentiment, dear 
to every true American heart : Liberty and Union, now and for 
ever, one and inseparable." — Webster. 

6 



62 



ANALYSIS. 



I may not see him shining 

When my eyes shall be turned 
to behold the sun in heaven 

for the last time, 

r feeble 



of a once glorious 
[Union, 



o r broken ^ fragments 
5 \ and \ 
§ t dishonored ) 

{dissevered, 
discordant, 
belligerent, 
r rent with civil feuds, 
on a land \ and 

L drenched, it may be, 

in fraternal blood ; 



(rather) . . . 

r ieeoie -\ 
... let their last J and \ glance (to) behold the gorgeous . . . 
I lingering J 
, . . ensign of the Republic, 

if known ^ 
now \ and J. throughout the earth, 
v. honored J 
still full high advanced, 
r arms -> 
(its J and I streaming in their original luster, 
t trophies J 

r erased 
not a stripe J or 

[ polluted, 
nor a single star obscured), 



(ensign) bearing .... 
for its motto 



no such miserable interrogatory 

as, What is all this worth ? (83. 2. a.) 






delusion 



nor those other words of J and 
^IXZ^ I folly, 
I Liberty first, 
\ and 

I Union afterward ; 
but everywhere . . . [heart : 

that other sentiment, dear to every true American 

Liberty "] ( now \ r one 
and \\ and U and 
- Union, J ^forever, J I inseparable! 
(sentiment) blazing on all its ample folds, 

' over the sea 
and 
I as they float . . \ over the land, 
and 
, in every wind under the whole heavens. 



EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. 63 

17. " Human reason, in one sphere of its cognition, is called 
upon to consider questions, which it can not decline, as they are 
presented by its own nature ; but which it can not answer, as 
they transcend every faculty of the mind." — Kanfs Critique. 

Human reason ... is called upon to consider questions 



in one sphere of 
its cognition, 



which it can not decline, 

as they are presented by its own nature; 
but 
which it can not answer, 

as they transcend every faculty of the 
mind. 

This is a single complex sentence, consisting of one leading 
clause, limited by an infinitive clause whose object is, in turn, 
limited by two complex relative clauses, in adversative relation 
to each other, and each further limited by an adverbial clause of 
cause (logical reason.) 

As an exercise in construction, the pupil may recast this sen- 
tence, abridging it, or expanding into several sentences. 

18. " We dare not make ourselves of the number, or com- 
pare ourselves with some that commend themselves ; for they, 
measuring themselves by themselves, and comparing themselves 
among themselves, are not wise." 

19. " Could he possibly have committed this crime, (I am 
sure he could not,) (72) which, as all will acknowledge, is at 
variance with the character he has borne, and the whole tenor 
of his life ? " 

20. " So live that when thy summons comes to join 

The innumerable caravan, that moves 

To that mysterious realm, where each shall take 

His chamber in the silent halls of death ; 

Thou go not like the quarry slave at night, 

Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed 

By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave, 

Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 

About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams." — Bryant. 



64 



ANALYSIS. 



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THE SUBSTANTIVE. 65 

Summary of the Rules of Syntax. 

1 4:4:. The following summary of the principal rules of Syn- 
tax presents the different classes of words, and modes of rela- 
tion topically , and embraces the substance of the leading rules 
of Etymology l and Syntax 2 in Bullions's Grammar, with such 
observations as serve to explain cases of difficult construction. 

The numbers of the rules in parentheses correspond with those 
of the Grammars of this series. The pupil should, in all in- 
stances, consult the Grammar for fuller explanation. 

The Substantive? 
Nominative Case. 

145. The subject of a finite verb is put in the nomi- 
native* (Rule VI.) ; as, " I am." " We sleep." 

1. The case of the subject of an infinitvie or partici- 
ple, is generally determined by its relation to the principal 
verb (see 140) ; as, " / desire to study " " He ordered the 
men to fire." " Having said this, he departed." " I saw him 
running at full speed." 

146. A substantive 3 whose case depends on no 
other word, is put in the nominative absolute 5 (R.VIL). 
This includes the following : — 

1. A substantive with a participle; 6 as, " Whose gray 
top shall tremble, he descending." 

2. A substantive denoting a person or thing addressed ; 7 
as, " Plato, thou reasonest well." 

3. A substantive used in exclamation] 8 as, "O, the 
times ! " 

Exception. — With an interjection denoting emotion, the 
pronoun of the first person is put in the objective case ; as, 
" Ah me ! " " Me miserable ! " 

A. & P. Gr.— 1583. %677. *109. *760. $768. ^769. 7773. 
*774. 

C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 36. 1. 236.2. 34. 455. 557. 657,1. 757.2. 
«57. 3. 



66 ANALYSIS. 

4. A substantive used by pleonasm, 1 before an affirma- 
tive; 2 as, "The prophets, do they live for ever?" "He that 
made the ear, shall he not hear? " 

(a.) We find occasional instances of the pleonastic noun in 
the objective case; as, "Jesus of Nazareth, a man approved 
.... him being delivered by the determinate counsel and fore- 
knowledge of God, ye have taken." [Greek : " 'Iijoow rbv Nat- 
ctQaiov avdQa . . . . : tovtov t^ . . Zaftovrsg," x.r. ?.. — Acts ii. 22, 
23.] 

(6.) The introductory particle it often refers to a substan- 
tive, or substantive phrase or clause, following the verb, 
which is the real subject of the sentence ; 3 as, " It is John 
who is to blame." " It is the duty of all to improve." 

Objective Case. 

147- A substantive being the object of a transitive verb in 
the active voice is put in the objective ease 4 (Rule X.) ; as, 
" He loves its." " Whom shall we send? " 

1. Verbs signifying to name, choose, appoint, consti- 
tute, call, etc., generally take two objects — the direct, 
denoting the person or thing acted upon, and the indirect, 
denoting the result of the act expressed 5 (83); as, "They 
elected him president." 

**# For fuller discussion of " second objects," (see 82, etseq.), 

148. A substantive being the object of the relation ex- 
pressed by a preposition is put in the objective case 6 (Rule 
XI.) ; as, " To whom much is given, of him shall much be 
required." " He gave the book to me." 

1. The prepositional phrase limits the first term of the 
relation; as, " He went to Boston." " The book on the table 
belongs to me." (What book?) 

2. Nouns denoting time, value, weight, or measure 
are commonly in the objective, without a "governing" word; 7 
as, " It cost a dollar." " It weighs a pound." 

A. & P. Gr.— 11044. 2. *775. * 583. 25. *801. 5 810. *818. 
^ 828. 
C. S.Gr.— 2 Lesson 57. 4. ±Q1. 5 01.5. 6 62. 7 62. Sp. Rule. 



THE PRONOUN. 67 

3. A phrase or clause may be the subject of a verb, or 
the object of a transitive verb, or a preposition; x as, — 

Subject. — "To study hard is the best way to improve." " That 
nothing could change his purpose was evident." 

Object. — " He declared that nothing could give him greater 
pleasure." " Whether good or whether bad, depends on how we 
take it." 

4. When a phrase or clause is used substantively as subject or 
object, the relation to each other of the words it contains 
is not thereby affected* 2 

Possessive Case. 

149. A substantive that limits the signification of an- 
other, by denoting possession, origin, or fitness,* is 
put in the possessive case 4 (Rule XIII.). " The boy's hat." 
" The sun's rays." " The men's coats." 

%* Nouns in the possessive case are sometimes merely descriptive of 
some circumstance which the principal noun represents; as, " Pompey's 
Pillar." " The king's evil," etc. 

Apposition. 

150. Substantives placed together for the sake of emphasis 
or explanation, and denoting the same thing, are said to be in 
apposition, and agree in case b (Rule I.) ; as, " Cicero, the 
orator, was a Roman." " He spoke of John, the beloved disciple." 

151. The predicate substantive after an attributive verb 
is in the same case as the subject before it 6 (Rule IX.) ; as, 
" It is he" " I thought it to be him" "I knew him to be an 
honest man" 

The Pronoun. 

Personal Pronouns. 

152. Personal Pronouns agree with the words for 
which they stand, in gender, number, and person 1 

*839. $583. 5; 667. 



A. &P. Gr. — 1583. 23. 


2 553.24. 


3165, 


*796. ^729. 






C.S.Gr. — Lesson* 64. 


5 51. 6 60. 


7 54. 



68 ANALYSIS. 

(Rule IV.) ; as, " All that a man hath he will give for his life." 
" The people elect their rulers." 

See Special Rules 1, 2, 3 (A. & P. Gr. 7.90), as to the number 
and person of pronouns referring to two or more words. 

1. Myself, thyself, etc., are often the objects of verbs, 
of which the words they represent are the subjects. They are, 
in such instances, called reflexive pronouns ; ! as, " You wrong 
yourself." " He gave himself to his country." 

Relative Pronouns. 

153. The relative agrees in person and number with its 
antecedent 2 (Rule V.); as, "Thou who speakest." "The 
book which was lost." 

1. A relative [or interrogative] in the objective case gen- 
erally precedes the verb on which it depends, as well as the 
subject of the verb; 3 as, " The boy whom I saw." " The book 
which I bought." 

2. The antecedent of the relative is frequently omitted, 
especially in poetry ; as, — 

" Grace that won [those] who saw to wish her stay." — Milton. 
" Him who disobeys, me disobeys." — Id. B. Y. 611. 
[He] who disobeys him, disobeys me. 

a * * * A n cl to subdue 
By force [those] who reason for their law refuse." 

— Id. VI. 40. 
" Sent from [him] whose sovereign goodness I adore." 

— Id. VIII. 647. 
S. The relative what is never used, save when its antece- 
dent is omitted. It represents but one case, — the nominative 
or objective; but it implies a reference to a general antece- 
dent, omitted, to which belongs the other case required by the 
construction. 4 [See also A. & P. Gr. 265, 266, 279, et seq., and 
Appendix, IY.] 

A &P. Gr. — 1583. 6. *742. 2583.9; 816. *583. 11. 
C. S. Gr. — 2 Lesson 55. 



THE VERB. 69 

4. The relative in the objective case is often omitted — 
(rarely in the nominative, except in poetry 1 ) ; as, " Here is the 
money [which] I borrowed." 

5. The relative without an antecedent is sometimes 
used in idiomatic sentences, as a sort of connective between 
two verbs, depending, in some sense, upon both. But the 
antecedent maybe supplied; as, "Whom, having not seen, we 
love." " In whom, though now we see him not, yet believing, we 
rejoice" 

6. The Compound relative 2 whoever, etc., with its regi- 
men, may be regarded as a substantive clause, used according 
to an idiom of the language — the relative having only the case 
required by the clause. No antecedent is ever expressed ; 3 as, 
" Whoever told such a story must have been misinformed." 
" Take whichever you please." 

The Verb. 

Finite Verb. 
154. A verb (finite) agrees with its subject in number 
and person. 4 (Rule VIII.) 

1. A singular noun used in & plural sense has a verb 
in the plural; 5 as, " Ten sail are in sight." 

2. Two or more substantives singular, taJcen together, 
have a verb in the plural; 6 as, " James and John are 
brothers." 

3. Two or more substantives, singular, taken sepa- 
rately, or one to the exclusion of the rest, have a verb in the 
singular ; 7 as, " James or John is here," 

4. A collective noun, expressing many as one whole, 
has a verb in the singular ; 8 as, " The army is large." 

5. A collective noun, expressing many as individuals, has 
a verb in the plural;* as, "The public are respectfully in- 
formed." 

A. &P.Gr. — i75i. ^272. $583.12. *776. $777. *778. ? 785. 
*790. $791. 
C. S. Gr. Lesson 213. 458. 5 59. 1. 659.2. 759.3. 859.5, 



' 70 ANALYSIS. 

6. When verbs are not connected in the same construction, 
each must have its own subject; l as, " Our friend brought two 
loads to market, and they were sold at a good price." 

7. The subjunctive mood [elliptical future (see 223)~] is 
used in dependent clauses, when both contingency or doubt, 
and futurity are expressed, 2 (Rule XIV) ; as, "If he study, 
he will improve." " If he do but touch the hills, they shall 
smoke." [See A. & P. Gr. 391.] 

The Infinitive. 

155. The infinitive mood " is governed by" [depends upon 
and limits] verbs, nouns, and adjectives, 3 (Rule XV.) ; 
as, "I desire to learn." " A desire to learn." " Anxious to 
learn." 

1. The infinitive is never used except in dependent 
clauses. And although it must, as a verb, of necessity have a 
subject, expressed or understood, it is most frequently used in 
so general a manner, that the subject is often unimportant 
or unknown. 

2. The infinitive is a sort of verbal noun, 4 and frequently 
stands for little else than the name of an act not referred 
to any particular subject. 

3. It has the construction of both a verb and a noun. 

(a.) As a verb, 5 it may have all the modifications of 
the verb, with subject, object, attribute and adjunct. 

(b.) As a noun, 6 it may be the subject or object of an- 
other verb, an adjunct, or in apposition with a substan- 
tive, object of a preposition, or may have any other substan- 
tive use. [See Special Rules, A. & P. Gr. 869, et seq.~] 

Participles. 

156. Participles have the construction of nouns, ad- 
jectives, and verbs. 1 (Rule XYI.) 

A. &P. Gr. — 1795. *857. *865. *866. * 868. *867. * 890. 
C.S.Gr. — Lesson 2 65. *6Q. *67. 7 67. 



THE ADVERB 71 

1. Every participle has its own subject, which it limits, 
expressed or understood. 

2. A participle used as a noun ! may be the subject of a 
verb, predicate substantive, or the object of a verb or 
preposition; as, " Saying is not doing" " Avoid doing evil." 
" He was earnest in doing his duty." 

3. A participle used as a substantive or an adjunct may 
have all the limitation of the verb 2 from which it is derived. 

4. The participle as an adjective expresses an attribute of a 
substantive, without affirmation; 2 as, "The sword hangs 
rusting on the wall." 

5. The participle is sometimes used absolutely ;* as, "Prop- 
erly speaking, there is no such thing as chance." 

The Adjective* 

157- An adjective or adjective adjunct [adjective, 
article, participle, adjective pronoun, or clause (123) J qual- 
ifies the substantive to which it belongs. 5 (Rules II., III.) 

1. An adjective after an attributive verb limits the sub- 
ject of that verb; 6 as, "Snow is white" "To do good is 
commendable" 

2. Two or more adjectives in succession, either with or 
without a conjunction, qualify the same word; 7 as, " A wise 
and just man can not lack friends." "A beautiful white dove." 

3. When an adjective precedes tivo nouns, it generally 
qualifies them both : 8 as, " The training of the young requires 
great care and patience" 

The Adverb, 

158. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs 9 (Rule XYIII.) ; as, "John speaks distinctly ; he is 
remarkably diligent, and reads very correctly." 

1. Adverbs sometimes modify nouns, pronouns, and prep- 

A.&P. Gr. — 1891. ^894. 3 893. *907. 5 676-704. *684. 

1583.1. %583.2. $922. 
C. S. Gr. — Lesson 5 52. 6 69. 



72 ANALYSIS. 

ositions ; * as, " I, only, am left alone to tell thee." " And Satan 
came aZso among them." " He was nearly over the hill." 

2. A phrase or clause is often used as an adverb. (66. 
2-125.) 

Conjunctions. 

159. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sen- 
tences. 2 (Rule XIX.) 

1. Words of the same class 3 having a similar relation 
to some other word : — 

(a.) The same cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, " Give 
the book to him and me." " i?e and /will go." 

(5.) The same moods and tenses of verbs ; as, "He aima 
and fulfilled his promise." " CWe and s^e." 

Note. — A participle and an infinitive are sometimes 
connected, referring to the same subject; as, " And renders us 
ainpracticed, unprepared, and still to seek" {Par. Lost, VIII. 
196.) " Time past, present, and to come" 

(c.) Adjectives limiting the same substantive. 

(d.) Adverbs limiting the same word. 

00 Prepositions with a common regimen; as, " To 
and from the city." 

2. Sentences : — 

(a.) Coordinates, or in the same construction. 
(6.) Subordinate clauses limiting the same principal 
clause. (See 133. 2.) 

3. Phrases are connected in the same way as the words 
whose office they perform; as, " He went up the hill and over the 
river." " All of the men and most of the women were present." 

4. When conjunctions connect clauses, they do not con- 
fMcS inmvidual words in those clauses. 4 

c f>. TnV conjunctions than and as, implying comparison, 
connect, in the same case, words having the same construction; 5 
asj * U{ G6Ta is heavier than silver" [is]. " Choose wisdom rather 
tl|&n riches." 

A. & P. Gr. — 1923, 924. *944. 2945. *573. 5. $583. 20. 
C.S.Gr. — Lesson 270. 370.1. 



INTERJECTIONS. 73 

6. A substantive is sometimes connected with another, in a 
sort of apposition, by the word as. 1 " I have known him as a 
friend." "Asa statesman, he was wise." 

7. Than has sometimes a prepositional force, and is followed 
by the objective case ; as, — 

" Nor ever saw, till now, 
Sight more detestable than him and thee." 

Par. Lost, II. 744. 

The Preposition. 

1 60. A preposition shows the relation between the prin- 
cipal word in its phrase, and the word which the phrase 

limits; as, " It lies on the table." " The love of money is the 
root of all evil." " There was another large of understanding.''* 
" Sagacious of his quarry." 

1. A.ny word which a prepositional phrase, as an adjective 
or adverbial adjunct, can limit, may be the first term of the 
relation. 

Interjections. 

161. Interjections have [generally] no grammatical 

relation. 2 (Rule XX.) 

1. Sometimes an interjection denoting passionate desire, long- 
ing, suffering, etc., is followed by a dependent clause. In 
this case the interjection stands for the leading proposi- 
tion] as, — 

" 0, that this too, too solid flesh would melt, 
Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew ! " 
"0, that I had wings like a dove ! then would I fly away 
and be at rest." 

2. The " 0," in the preceding sentences, is the grammat- 
ical equivalent of " I wish; " but the substitution of these 
or other explanatory words would be either tame and absurd, 
or too diffuse to express the passion we unconsciously recognize 
in the simple interjection. 

A. &P. Gr.— 1674. *970. 
C. S. Gr. — Lesson 271, 

7 



74 ^ ANALYSIS. 

Words. 

162* Words, being the signs of ideas, perform their proper 
office in discourse, — 

1. When each word, used in an accepted and understood 
sense, presents the exact idea for which it is made to stand, 
and, — 

2. When the several words that make up each sentence 
are in such form, and so disposed, that the several ideas are 
clearly seen in their proper order and relation, and the proposi- 
tion is presented with clearness, force, and elegance, 

163. Words, therefore, are to be considered chiefly, — 

1. In their meanings,* including, of course, their origin 
and etymology ; and, — 

2. Their relations, as used in discourse. 

3. The changes which words undergo, by inflection and 
otherwise, are partly referable to their etymology, and partly 
to their use to express idiomatic relation, or euphony. 

* As fundamental in the discussion of the nature, laws, and use of lan- 
guage, it may be noted, — 

I. That a large class of words furnishes us with the names of simple 
ideas, and that these words are incapable of definition. They are the 
root-words of the language, and the simplest form of which language is 
capable. Among these are, — 

1. Names of simple objects ,• as, tree, man, boy, etc. 

2. Names of simple qtialitles ; as, sweet, good, blue, etc. 

3. Names of simple physical acts, and the like. 

4. Connectives, either in their present form, or in the noun or verb 
form in old Anglo-Saxon or Gothic. — Locke, Bk. III. chap. iv. 

II. A class of words, some simple and some complex, are so universal 
and necessary in our use and idiom of speech, that a knowledge of their 
force and meaning is vital. 

1. Of this class we may notice, first, those words which stand for the 
common relation of things to each other, viz. — the connectives (see 
15. 3); as,— 

And means, added to. 

7s means, first, exists, but generally a term of relation, used to assert 
one idea of another; as, " Snow is white." 

On, under, beside, etc., upon whose meaning the distinctive force of the 
sentence depends ; thus, — 



WORDS. 



75 



Formation . 



Form 



164. For convenience of discussion, words may be classified 
as to their uses, their form, and their derivation, 1 as in the 
following table : — 

I Primitive : as, boy, wise. 
Derivative .■ as, boyish, wisely. 
Simple : as, ink, book, stand. 
Compound: as, ink-stand, etc. 

{-r ji 4 7 ™ \ wise, wiser, wisest. 
Inflected: as ] ' 

( write, wrote, written. 
rr • jj * 7 \ the, in, on. 

Uninfected: as . . J ' ' 
f over, under, etc. 

r Noun: as, man. 
' 1. Prin'l Elements < Pronoun : as, lie. 

I Verb : as, love, struck. 
r Adjective : as, good, bad. 
2. Adjuncts j Article : as, a man, the boy. 
L Adverb : as, wisely, nobly. 
( Conjunction : as, and, but. 
I Preposition : as, to, into, by. 
Interjection: as, ah! oh! alas! 
Expletives: as, There is no 
[such word as fail ! 



Use. 
Parts of Speech ' 



3. Relators . 



i. 4. Attendants 



" The book is on the table." 

" The book is under the table." 

" The book is beside the table." 

2. Words that are the current terms to express our consciousness of cer- 
tain relations of a subject of thought, to that conceived or asserted of it, 
become, in some sense, form-words of language. These are, especially, 
those which indicate the distinctions of voice, mood, tense, etc., — being 
to our language what inflections are to the Greek and Latin. 

It may not be amiss to consider here, that, for the abstract symbols 
found in inflections, we have the more perfect and definite form of real 
words, retaining, for the most part, their original and forceful meaning. 

Of this class are, especially, the auxiliaries. (See A. & P. Gr. 329-364.) 

These, though somewhat modified in their use, and generally regarded 
by grammarians as if inseparable from the so-called principal verb, never 
entirely lose their original meaning. 

Thus, in affirming the act of writing of some subject, as, " the pupil," 
we have, by means of these form- words, the following relations : — 

The pupil writes, positive assertion. 

The pupil has written, the possession (having) of the act, by 

reason of its being finished by him. 

A. &P. Gr. — 182, 87,89. 



76 ANALYSTS. 

165. Words, according to the office* which they perform 
in a sentence, are divided into different classes, called Parts 
of Speech. 1 This classification is of use chiefly for the fol- 
lowing purposes : — 

1. To assign to the same class words having the same gen- 
eral use and the same accidents, for the better discussion of their 
characteristics. 2 

2. To establish certain canons, called Mules of Syntax, in 
accordance with which, certain classes or forms of words must be 
used when put in relation to each other. 3 

166. Only words that are names of things can be used as 
the subject of a proposition. Such words may be also objects. 
These are called nouns. Hence (as this is their most common 
use), the general definition. 

167* A noun is the name of a thing. 

1. No sentence can be made without a noun, or some word, 
phrase, or clause standing for a noun. 

2. Belonging to the same class, as performing the same office, 
(representatively) are pronouns. 4, 

168. In the statement of every proposition, some word must 
be used to affirm* of the subject. Such word is called a verb. 
Hence the definition, — 

169. A verb is a word used to express the act, being, or 

state of its subject? 

The pupil shall (to) write, .... is under obligation. 

The pupil will (to) write, .... the speaker judges it is his will; that 

he wills or wishes. 

The pupil may (to) write, .... is permitted (or it is possible). 

The pupil can (to) write, ..... is able to write. 

The pupil could (to) write, . . . was able. 

The pupil would (to) write, . . . had a mind, etc. 

* Since grammar considers both the uses and meanings of words, as 
individuals and in classes, our authors have generally given the definitions 
of the parts of speech in the abstract, and the dictionaries distribute the 
definitions according as, in their general use, words perform the office of 
one part of speech or another ; strictly speaking, the grammatical distinc- 
tion can be fully determined only by the use of a word in discourse. 
A. &P. Gr. — 191,92. *95. *96,97. *228. & 661.1. Q 314. 
C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 3. 335. 412. 5 50. 1. 6 16. 



WORDS. 77 

170. A sentence may be formed by the use of a substan- 
tive and a verb, attended by no other words, and it must 
contain, at least, these {35). Hence we have, as, — 

r Nouns. 

1st class — Essential words. \ [Pronouns.'] 

[ Verbs. 

171. The simplest extension, or limitation of the idea 
expressed by a substantive, is made by a word, expressing 
quality, circumstance, etc., or in some way used to desig- 
nate or point it out. Such word is called an adjective. 
Hence, — 

1 72. An adjective is a word used to qualify a substan- 
tive. 1 

[The article performs an adnominal office ; but has generally 
been classified, from its peculiar use, as a separate part of 
speech. 2 ] 

1 73. The simplest limitation of a verb is shown by a 
word, used to tell the time, manner, etc., of the fact ex- 
pressed by the verb. Such word may similarly limit adjectives, 
and other words of its own class. Hence, — 

174. An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb, or to denote some circumstance 
respecting it. 3 

We have then, as, — 

I Adjectives. 
[Article.] 
Adverbs. 

*** Adjective Pronouns, and Nouns in Possessive Case, in appo- 
sition, and as attributes, perform the office of adjectives. 

175. To connect and express a variety of relations 

between words, which can be shown, neither by their form nor 
position (15. 3), we employ words called connectives, of 
which there are two general classes. ______ 

A. & P. Gr.-il9S. 2 183, 194, 707-728, *523. 
C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 10. 2 9. 3 31. 

7*. 



i 5 ANALYSIS. 

1. Conjunctions which connect words, phrases, and sen- 
tences in the same construction, or unite a clause to a sentence, 
to show some modification. 

2. The preposition which shows the relation (objective) 
between the principal word in its phrase, and the word which the 
phrase limits. Hence, — 

f Conjunctions. 
3d class -Relators. [ rrepositions . 

176. In addition to these there are, of attendant words, — 

1. To express emotion, having no grammatical relation to 
other words, — Interjections. 

2. Words used out of their ordinary meaning, by an idiom, 
to give smoothness or elegance to discourse, called words of 
euphony, or expletives; as, " There are five men here." 

177. The following sentences give examples of the ordinary 
use of the different parts of speech. 

1. " The little bird sings in that high tree." 

2. " The boy saw the bird on its nest." 

3. " My brother came home last night." 

4. " He brought that boy's book to the master." 

5. " A good boy is always honest and truthful." 

6. " He studies his lesson diligently." 

7. " John lives at home ; he is a good boy." 

8. "I have known him many years." 

9. " This book is better than mine." 
" I saw his father in the garden." 

10. " The boy who studies will improve." 

11. " The book which I bought is new." 

12. " I know the boy whose brother is here." 

13. " The boy and his sister go to school and study." 

14. " Mary reads and John writes, but Peter is idle." 

15. " The cover of the box lies on the table." 

16. " Oh, what a beautiful present! " 



PARSING. 79 

178. Parsing. 1 

The filll-faced words in the preceding examples may be 
parsed as follows : — » 

1. Bird — a noun, common, 3d person, singular, nominative, 
and the subject of the verb sings, 

2. Bird — a noun, common, 3d person, singular, objective, 
the object of the transitive verb saw. 

3. Came — a verb, intrans., irreg., — come, came, coming, 
come, — past indie, agrees with its subject, brother, in the 3d sing.. 

4. Hoy's — a noun, com., masc, 3d, sing., possessive, and 
limits the word book. 

5. (a.) Good — an adjective of quality, irreg., — good, better, 
best, — positive, and limits boy. » 

(b.) Honest — an adjective, in the predicate, affirmed as an 
attribute of boy, which it limits. [Same of truthful.'] 

6. Diligently — an adverb [from dil igent], conrp., — dili- 
gently, more diligently, most diligently, — positive, and limits the 
verb studies. 

7. He — a pronoun, personal, stands for John, 3d, sing., nom., 
subject of is. 

8. Him — a pronoun [as before], objective, object of the 
verb have known. 

9. (a.) Jline — a pronoun, personal, 1st, sing., possessive, 
limits book, understood. 2 

(Z>.) His — a pronoun [as before], possessive, and limits 
father. 3 

10. Who — a relative pronoun, relates, for its antecedent, to 
boy, etc., which its clause limits (see 115), in 3d pers., sing., 
nom., and subject of studies. 

11. Which — a relative, etc. [as before], objective, and the 
object of the verb bought. 

Remark. — A relative in the objective case, generally precedes 
the verb on which it depends. 

A. & P. Gr.— 1574, et seq. *240, 241. App. III. *292. 
C. S. Gr. — i Lessons 36, 37, 75. 3 14, Obs. 2. 



80 ANALYSIS. 

12. Whose — a relative pronoun, antecedent, boy, possessive, 
limits brother. 

13. (a.) And — a conjunction, copulative, connects the 
words boy and sister, 

(b.) And — conj., connects the predicates, go to school and 
study. 

14. (a.) And — a conj., connects the sentences, Mary reads, 
and John writes. 

(b.) But — a conj., adversative, connects the sentence, Peter 
is idle, with the preceding, showing antithesis. 

15. (a.) Of — a preposition, connects the objective, box, 
with the word cover, which the phrase, of the box, as an adjec- 
tive, limits. 

(b.) On — a prep., shows relation between the objective, 
table, and the verb, lies, which the phrase, on the table, as an 
adverb, limits. 

16. Oil — an interjection ; has no grammatical relation. 

Note. — The parsing of words as set forth above, and as gen- 
erally practiced in our schools, may degenerate into mere rou- 
tine. Care should be taken that this exercise be made only a 
means to the great end of familiarity with the forms, meanings, 
and relations of words, so as to give the pupil skill in their use, 
and readiness in apprehending and mastering what he reads or 
hears. • 

It is essential that the pupil early acquire such skill in the rec- 
ognition and statement of the grammatical accidents of words, 
that he may, without embarrassment, give full attention to their 
relation and force in construction. The same order of etymo- 
logical parsing should always be observed. 

For models, see A. & P. Gr., under the several Parts of Speech, 
177, 194, 225, 258, 278, 236, 313, 428, 537, 553, 
560, 572. 

In connection with the parsing of each word, the pupil may 
make an analysis of the same, if it be a derivative, according to 
the forms hereafter given. {225, et seq.) 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



81 



179. Table of the Parts of Speech. 

















\ 1 


. Particular names. 






Proper \ 2. In transition state. 










r 1. Class names. 






'NounsJ 


• 




2. Collective names. 




' 02 




Common - 


3. Names of materials. 




0) 






4. Names of measures. 




1 






. 5. Abstract— qualities, actions, states. 




£3 






' Personal j j Simple. 










Relative ) I Compound. 




Pi 


Pronouns 2 


. . . 


Interrogative f Possessive. 




.3 ' 






,. Distributive. 




£ 






[Adjective Demonstrative. 




1 




t Indeiinite. 




QQ 




( Active -\ 






S3 




f Transitive., j Passive 










Use 


• • • ] Intransitive .... 


' Indicative . . . ■ 






GO 






[ Attributive 

( Regular 


Potential .... 

Subjunctive . . 


w 



, X! 


o 




, Verbs < 


Form . 




Irregular 
Defective 


Imperative. . . 
Infinitive .... 


r 3 






~H 




.Connection 5 Principal 


^ Participial . . ,j 




CO 




c Auxiliary J 




fa . 
o 


OB 


f 1. Of Quality. 


03 

H 




'Adjectives* 


J 2. Of Quantity. 
j 3. Circumstantial. 








(,4. Participial, 
f 1. Time. 




02 




J 2. Place. 




e8 

5 


fc Adverbs . . 


1 3. Manner. 




T3 
N 


1 4. Cause. (129.) 

( Copulative . . j Connective. , 
r Conjunctions . . J ( Continuative. 




3d Class — 


1 Disjunctive. . distributive. 
( Adversative. 




Connectives... - 




' Place. 
Time. 






Prepositions 5 . . . 


Agent or Instrument. 








Cause. 
- Miscellaneous relations. 




4th Class — Attei 


idants i ^terjections — various emotions. 






1 Expletives, and Words of Euphony. 



A. & P. Gr. — 1 107. 2232. ^398. *207. 5 545. 
C. S. Gr. — 2 Lesson 12. 3 20. *10. 



82 ANALYSIS. 

Uses of the Parts of Speech. 
180* A noun or pronoun may be, — 

1. The subject l of a verb ; as, " Boys play." 

2. Attribute (78), after an attributive verb; as, " John is 
a scholar." 

3. In apposition, — 

OO Limiting ; as, " Cicero, the orator, was eloquent. " 
(6.) By pleonasm; as, "The boy, O, where was AeZ" 

4. Case independent, — 

{a.) By address or exclamation; as, "Hear, 0, my 
people ! " 

(6.) With a participle* (131) ; " The sun fow^ serf, we 
returned." 

5. The object of a verb; as, "He learned his lesson." 

6. The object of a relation ; as, "He lives irc, the city." 

7. Limiting another noun — possessive case. " The sun's 
rays." 

181. A noun, as subject or object of a finite verb, may be 
the subject of an infinitive or participle (see 138. 1) ; as, 
" I believe him to be innocent." " They met him riding at full 
speed." 

182. A verb expresses the act, being, or state, of its 

subject. 

1. Simple affirmation ; as, " God rewards the good." 

2. Asks a question. Interrogative; as, "Does God re- 
ward the good ? " 

B. Commands ; as, " Come unto me." 

4. Expresses possibility , power, obligation, etc. ; as, 
" I can go." " I may write." 

5. Any tense of the indicative or potential mood may be 
used in a conditional clause, to express contingency, etc. ; 
as, " If he has arrived, bid him come in." " If I can do it, I 
will." 

* Strictly speaking, the entire clause is fragmentary, or elliptical; but 
the participle, none the less, refers to the noun as its subject. 

A. &P. Gr.— 1600. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 83 

6. The infinitive has various uses. 

(a.) Limits the subject of the principal verb ; as, "The 
desire to excel made him industrious." 

(6.) Limits the object of another verb ; as, "He told me 

TO GO." 

(c.) Used substantively ; as, — 

Subject, — " To play is pleasant" 

Object, — "He loves to play." 

Attribute, 1 — as, " To obey is to enjoy." 

" The laws are to be respected" 
"The ship is to sail to-morrow." 

(d.) As second object (82), after an adjective; as, "He 
was anxious to learn." " I am able to do it." 

(e.) To indicate the purpose, end, or design, of the act 
expressed by a preceding verb; 2 as, "I came to bury Caesar, 
not to praise him." 

183. When the infinitive is used as the subject or object of 
another verb, or as second object, its own subject is sometimes 
expressed, and generally introduced by the particle for ; as, 
" For me to die is gain." 

184. Infinitives and participles, being leading ele- 
ments in dependent clauses, are parsed variously, according to 
the office and relation of their clause in the sentence. They are 
moods of the verb, and, as such, have their own subjects, 
expressed or understood. But the very fact of their use as 
subordinates, to aid in the structure of a principal sentence, 
gives them, most frequently, a general force, in which they 
are, in part, abstracted from relation to a particular subject; as, 
" To play is pleasant." To play is little more than the name of 
an act. 

185. Sometimes the infinitive forms, with the leading verb, 
a sort of compound verb, the whole being a concrete affirmation of 
one subject, and having the same object; as, " He intended to 
injure me" 

A. &P. Gr. — 1876. 2 882. 

C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 66, Sp. R. 4. 2 66, Sp. R. 6. 



84 ANALYSIS. 

Uses of the Relative. 

186. The relative pronoun is in the nature of an adjec- 
tive. It always refers to a preceding substantive, which it 
limits or defines. 

187. The principal uses of the relative are illustrated in 
the following : — 

1. Nominative. 

" He, who acts greatly, is truly great." 

j *' He, that knows himself best, esteems himself least." 
" That, which can not be cured, must be endured." 
-" What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the 

mind." 

2. Possessive. 

" Happy is he whose friends are born before him." 
" He it was, whose guile deceived the mother of mankind." 
" A religion whose 1 origin [the origin of which] is divine." 
" They ascended a mountain whose summit was covered with 
snow." 

[Note. — That and what have no possessives.] 

3. Objective. 

" He, whom thou lovest, is sick." 

" This is he, of whom Moses did write." 

" Satan, than whom, 2 none higher sat." 

" God rested on the seventh day from all his work which he 
had made." 

" And yet there are five years, in which there shall be neither 
earing nor harvest." 

" That worthy name by which ye are called." 

" All that a man hath will he give for his life." 

" Eat what you like, but pocket nothing." 

188. Formerly, which was used preceded by the ; as, " 

that worthy name by the which they are called." — James ii. 7. 

A. & P. Gr. — 1 263. 2 966. 
C. Si Gr. — 2 Lesson 70, Obs. 2. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 85 

189. Which is sometimes used without its antecedent, in a 
distributive sense ; as, " Take which you will." 

*** For a discussion of what and the compounds, see A. & 
P. Gr.— 266, 272, 273, and Appendix, IV. 

190. The relative clause generally occurs in the body 
of the principal clause, following the antecedent; but it some- 
times follows the entire clause, and sometimes precedes it ; 
as, " He most lives, who thinks most" " He doubles his gift, 
who gives in time." 

*** For directions as to the position of the relative, see 
A. & P. Gr. — 754, 759. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

191. The interrogative pronoun is of the same nature 

as the relative ; but it refers not to a preceding, but to a sub- 
sequent sentence. 

1. As interrogatives, who and tvhich are both applied to per- 
sons — who, indefinitely, and which, definitely ; as, — 

" Who will show us any good? " 
" Which of you will go? " 

2. What is used in a general and indefinite sense ; as, " What 
do you want ? " " What book will you take ? " 

3. Which discriminates, and involves a knowledge of several 
things to be discriminated; as, " Which (of the books) do you 
want?" 

Incorrect. — " Which man is he that liveth, and shall not see 
death?" [Whatman.'] 

" What of the nations of Europe is most friendly ? " [ Which.'] 

Uses of the Adjective. 

192. Adjectives, and adjective words, including the article 
and possessive pronouns, are used, — 

1. As directly limiting the substantive they describe ; as, 
" Good boys." "New books." 

2. In predication, as attributes; as, " Sugar is sweet." 



86 ANALYSIS. 

Uses of the Adverb. 

193. Adverbs limit,— 

1. Verbs, to express circumstances of time, manner, etc. ; 
as, " The horse runs swiftly." " He will come soon." 

2. Adjectives ; as, " It is very good." " He is truly wise." 

3. Other adverbs ; as, " He reads very correctly." 

4. Occasionally, various words, — 

(a.) Nouns ; as, " He chose only men." " Chiefly citizens." 
(b.) Prepositions ; * as, "He is nearly up the hill." 
194:. When the limitation is satisfied by reference to the 
verb (or other predicate word alone, adjective or adverb), 
then the limiter is an adverb ; but when the limitation is car- 
ried bach, through the predicate, to the subject, then an 
adjective should be used ; as, — 
Adjective: " The sky looks cold" 

iC The man felt sad." 
Adverb : " He looked coldly on me." 

" His visage was sadly marred." 

1. The verbs which take adjectives after them, limiting the 
subject, are attributives. 

2. Adverbs are sometimes used to stand for a proposi- 
tion ; as, no, yes, truly, verily, etc. 

Uses of the Conjunction. 

195. The primary use of the conjunction is to connect 
sentences. 

1. Since propositions are often abbreviated, in thought or 
in expression, by the suppression of a common term, conjunc- 
tions are also said to connect words or phrases.f 

* The adverb may, in such case, be regarded as limiting the entire ad- 
jective (or adverbial) phrase, which is introduced by the preposition. 

In most instances in which an adverb seems to limit a noun, other words 
may be supplied ; or the limiting word, generally an adverb, has, by idi- 
omatic use, become an adjective. 

t For example, take the sentence, " John and James are good boys; " 
there is no doubt that the meaning is, " John is a good boy," and " James 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 87 

196. Conjunctions are of two general classes, Copula- 
tive and Disjunctive. 

197. A Copulative conjunction joins sentences together, 
and also connects their meaning. Of these there are two 
kinds : — 

1. Connectives, which merely unite sentences in proper, 
though not necessary, relation to each other; as, "The sun 
shines, and the sky is clear." " Bacon was a philosopher, and 
Milton was a poet." 

2. Continuatives,* which add on a member or clause, 
limiting, or, in some way, continuing the sense of the preced- 
ing; as, "I will go, if my brother come." "I wrote, because 
it pleased me." 

198. Disjunctive conjunctions join two sentences togeth- 
er, but disconnect their meaning. They are of two kinds, — 

1. Simple, or distributive, which disjoin and oppose, indef- 
initely; as, " It is day, or it is night." " He may go, or he may 
stay." 

2. Advevsative,\ which oppose or contrast the sentences 
they connect. 

is a good boy ; " but it is better to consider that the speaker, having formed 
the same judgment of each, revises it, and connects John and James direct- 
ly, before uttering the predication. 
* Continuative conjunctions are, — 

1. Suppositive, when they denote contingency, supposition, etc., but 
do not assert an existence; as, " If the sky fall, we shall catch larks." 

2. Positive, which show the coincidence of one assertion with another. 
They may be distinguished as, — 

(a.) Causal, which subjoin causes to effects; as, "The ship was lost 
because the pilot was unskillful." 

(&.) Collective, which subjoin effects to causes; as, " The pilot was un- 
skillful, therefore the ship was lost." 

t 1- Adversatives, relating to substances and their qualities, are dis- 
tinguished as absolute or comparative ; as, — 

Absolute : " Achilles was brave, but Thersites was not." 
" Scott was a soldier, but not a statesman." 
" Cicero was an orator, but Plato was a philosopher." 
• Comparative .- " He is wiser than his brother.' 



88 ANALYSIS. 

199. It will be seen, that, — 

Conjunctions, according to their meaning, affect the entire 
sense of the propositions which they connect ; as, — 

" I will go, if you will go with me." 

" I will go, and you will go with me." 

" I will go, before he arrives." 

" I will go, after he arrives." 

" I will go, unless he arrives." 

" I will go, because he arrives." 



O 

h- 1 

H 
O 
fe 
P 
»-i 

o 
o 



' Copulative . 



200. Table of Connectives, 
f Connective. 



I CONTINUATIVE . 

r Simple. 



Disjunctive . . . [ AdV ersative , 



{Suppositive. 
Positive. . JCawal. 

( Collective. 



1.* 



2.f 



( Absolute. 
I Comparative. 
j Adequate. 
( Inadequate. 



Anal y sis of the Verb. 

201. Custom has sanctioned the assigning of no less than 
thirty -seven I forms to the active voice, besides occasional 
idiomatic forms. The verb to be [and hence the passive voice 
of all transitive verbs] has nearly as many. 

202. Now, an analysis of the verb shows no more than 

2. Adversatives relating to events, and their causes or consequences, 
are distinguished as adequate and inadequate ; as, — 

Adequate .- " Unless these remain in the ship, ye can not be saved." 
Inadequate : " Troy will be taken, although Hector defend it." 
* Relating to substances and their qualities, and showing a simple appo- 
sition of the same attribute in different subjects, or of different attributes 
in the same subject, or of different attributes in different subjects. — Sir 
John Stoddart, Univ. Gram. p. 206. 
t Relating to events and their causes or consequences. — Idem. 
X Including the periphrastic conjugation (the participle in ing, with the 
verb " to be "), there are about sixty. The passive voice has assigned to 
it no less than thirty. 



ANALYSIS OF THE VERB. 89 

four distinct forms, exclusive of the minor euphonic 
changes, st, and s, in the 2d and 3d persons, singular ; as, — 

I. Love; 2. Loving; 3. loved; 4. loved. 

1. Write; 2. writing; 3. wrote; ±. written. 

There is, besides, one passive sense, the same (in form, hut 
not in meaning) as the fourth, above. 

203. All the compound tens,es may be separated into the 
simple verbs, of which they are composed, and their relation 
shown. 

204L. Such analysis seems essential, in the perfect mastery 
of these tenses, even if the old nomenclature be retained, for 
convenience, in parsing. 

205. The first form (love, tvrite) has three uses, — 

1. Connected directly with its subject, to affirm a present 
act [present, indicative] ; as, " I love." " I write" 

2. To command the act expressed by the verb, used only 
in the second person, and generally with the subject understood 
[imperative mood] ; as, " Love not sleep." 

3. In dependent clauses, as the name of the act, and de- 
pending (in some sense) upon some other verb [infinitive] ; as, 
" Boys love to play" 

206. The second form, the participle in ing, is used to 
express some quality or attribute of a subject, as in action-, 
and incomplete. 

1. It may be joined directly with its subject, before, or 
after it, and limits, like an adjective; as, " I saw him walking" 

2. It may follow the verb to be, or any other attributive 
verb, as an attribute of the subject [periphrastic conjugation] ; 
as, "I am writing " " I was loving." 

3. As an idiomatic substitute for an infinitive, following a 
principal verb, as its object; as, " He declines coming." 

4. It may be used as a substantive, preceded by an article, 
a noun in the possessive case, 1 or a possessive pronoun; 2 yet, 

A. &P. Gr.— 1896. *S97. 

8* 



90 ANALYSIS. 

if transitive, be followed by the objective case;* as, "We 
seldom hear of a marts despising wealth." 

In such use, it may be called a participial noun. This usage is 
common, and constitutes a peculiar idiom, which can not well be 
supplied by a different construction. 

5. It may be used independently, with an adverb; as, 
" Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance." 

6. Some derivative adjectives are formed from partici- 
ples, by means of prefixes ; as, ^^-premeditated, un-] us tilla- 
ble. They may be called verbal adjectives. 

207- The third form [in the weak conjugation, formed 
by the addition of ed to the root, and in the strong conjugation, 
by a change in the root] indicates an act, or state, as completed, 
and hence [in time], past; as, " I loved." " I wrote" 

208. The fourth form [past participle], loved, written, 
expresses a quality of the subject, as having been in action, 
but completed. It is never used except after the verb [ ? auxil- 
iary] have, somewhat in the nature of an object. 

209. Transitive verbs have one form to express the receiv- 
ing of an act by the subject ; as, loved, written [past participle, 

passive]. 

210. The past participle passive has two uses, — 

1. tJoined directly with its subject, to limit, by attributing 
the result of the act, which the verb expresses; as, " He, over- 
come by fatigue, fainted." 

2. It follows the verb to be, in all its moods and tenses, as 
an attribute of the subject. [This is the passive conjugation 
of the grammarians] ; as "He is loved; He was loved," etc. 

* Some writers omit the sign of the possessive : " We seldom hear of a 
man despising wealth." But this seems not so correct; for the object of 
the verb is not so much the man, as his contempt for wealth. Besides, the 
object of the verb, the thing heard, is an act past, and consequently a 
noun, rather than an act per forming ; which would make despising a proper 
participle. In this phrase, " a man despising wealth," despising is a proper 
participle. In this, " a man's despising wealth," it is a noun, still govern- 
ing wealth. — Noah Webster's Grammar, 



THE AUXILIARIES. 91 

The Auxiliaries.* 

211. Whatever was the original force and usage of the 
auxiliary verbs, it is certain, that long custom, which the 
authority of grammarians has probably fostered, has established 
the distinction of mood and tense, represented by them as a 
proper part of the inflection of the verb ; and the mind con- 
ceives of the compound tenses, so called, as a unit. Never- 
theless, an analysis of these compound tenses will lead, not 
only to a better understanding of the thought they express, but 
to a more critical and accurate use of them. 

212. The auxiliary affirms the relation or condition 

of the subject, with reference to the act expressed by the 
principal verb, as really as a simple finite verb, followed by 
an infinitive, or, in the perfect tenses, by an object. Compare 
the following*: — 

I am able to go. Pres. — I am about to read. 

I can . . go. Perf. — I have read. 

I desire to go. [I have a book.] 

I will . go. 

I am obliged to decline. 

I' shall. . . decline. 

213. In the passive voice, the participle is an attri- 

btlte of the subject, connected with it by the verb to be, just as 
any other attribute. Compare the following : — 

He is a scholar. 

He is sick. 

He is ruined. 

* The words do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must, etc., are com- 
monly called auxiliaries, " by the help of which other verbs are conju- 
gated." It will appear, upon a little examination, that instead of occupying 
this subordinate position, they are, in truth, the frame words of the lan- 
guage, and so inseparably connected with the expression of our modes of 
thought toward other acts, that their constant use has, in the eyes of 
most authors, given that " familiarity " which " breeds contempt." Substi- 
tute for any one of these auxiliaries its proper synonym (or word-defini- 
tion), and the relation becomes apparent, and the connecting word, whose 
omission use has sanctioned, must be restored. 



92 ANALYSIS. 

We found him a scholar. 
We found him sick. 
We found him ruined. 

214:. Most of the auxiliaries have, in process of time, suf- 
fered some slight change in signification ; but a knowledge of 
their original meaning seems still to furnish the most important 
test of their right use. 

213. JLftoi was, be, and the other forms of this irregular 
verb, are, as auxiliaries, used still in the same sense as when 
employed as principal verbs.* 

*** For the use of am, in a future sense, and were, as ex- 
pressing condition, see A. & P. Gr. — 488, 490, 876. 3. 

216. Have, and its past, had, retain, practically, their 
original sense, to possess, to own : — 

I have a book. 

I have written. 

I had a book. 

I had written. 
1. Have, as an auxiliary, before the past participle of 
any verb, takes the following forms : — 

Have loved. 

Had loved. 

Shall or will [to] have loved. 

* The verb to be, used as a copula, is not limited. Whatever follows it, 
as the complement of the sentence, affects only the subject: — 
He is wise. He is in the house. 

He is a scholar. - He is nearly over the hill. 

He is here. He is always ready. 

He is unknown. He is to go to-morrow. 

He is struck. He is running away. 

Note, that no word generally esteemed an adverb can follow the verb to 
be, except such as indicate quality, condition, identity, or other circum- 
stance inhering- in an object (thing), independent of any affirmation. 

Generally, when an adjunct is satisfied by reference to the verb alone, it 
is adverbial. When the limitation can not be abstracted from the sub- 
ject and considered with the verb alone, it is adnominalj as, WalkB 
rapidly — rapid walking; Sings sweetly — sweet singing. 



ANALYSIS OF THE VERB. 93 

May, etc., [to'] have loved. 
Might, etc., [to'] have loved. 
To have loved. 
Having loved. 

2. Following any of the other auxiliaries, have is actually 
in the infinitive mood; as, " Shall have loved = shall to have 
lovetl;" so that the radical forms are no more than four, viz. : 
have loved, had loved, to have loved, having loved. 

3. In conditional clauses, the conjunction is sometimes 
omitted ; in which case the auxiliary had precedes the sub- 
ject; as, "Had I known the result, I would have acted differ- 
ently." 

4. Had is sometimes used for would have; as, " Had earth 
been there [if earth had been], earth had to her center shook 
[would have shaken]. 

217* Shall * (from the Anglo-Saxon seal, sceal,) means, to 

* Shall and Will. — The distinction between these words, although 
very clear when it is once apprehended, is very apt to be disregarded by 
persons who have not had the advantage of early intercourse with educated 
English people. It is much to be regretted that an English scholar of em- 
inence should have expressed the opinion, that the distinction between 
these words lt has, at present, no logical value or significance whatever," 
and have ventured the prediction that " at no very distant day, this verbal 
quibble will disappear, and that one of the auxiliaries will be employed 
with all persons of the nominative, exclusively as the sign of the future, 
and the other only as an expression of purpose or authority." The dis- 
tinction between shall and will, as auxiliary verbs to be used with various 
persons as nominatives, is a verbal quibble, just as any distinction is a 
quibble to persons too ignorant, too dull, or too careless for its apprehen- 
sion. Why, indeed, should we suffer a smart little verbal shock when the 
Irish servant says, " Will I put some more coal on the fire? " And why 
should we be so hard-hearted as to laugh at the story of the Frenchman, 
who, falling into the water, cried out, as he was going down, " I vill drown, 
and nobody shall help me " ! But those who have genuine, well-trained 
English tongues and ears are shocked, and do laugh. Without pretending 
to do what so many others have failed in doing, I shall give the explana- 
tion which is satisfactory to me. The radical signification of will (Anglo- 
Saxon willan) is purpose, intention, determination; that of shall (Anglo- 
Saxon sceal, ought) is obligation. I will do means, I purpose doing — I 
am determined to do. / shall do means, radically, I ought to do; and as a 



94 ANALYSIS. 

owe, to be obliged, to be under obligation ; and, in a modified 
sense, to express what is likely, or probable. The compound 
tenses, formed by aid of this auxiliary, are, in meaning, equiv- 
alent to the sense, expressed above, followed by the infinitive ; 
as, — 

I shall go = I am under obligation to go. 

Thou shalt go = Thou art under obligation to go. 

He shall go =He is obliged to go. 

Shall I go ? = Ought I to go ? 

Shall you go ? = Are you likely to go ? 

218. Will, may, can, must, as auxiliaries, are to be 
similarly construed ; as, — 

I will go = I will to go : It is my will to go. 
I can go = I can to go ; I am able to go. 
I may go =1 am allowed to go. 
I may go (probably) =1 am likely to go. 
I must go =It is my duty to go. 

219. In the past tenses, potential, the auxiliaries have lost 
somewhat of their original meaning; but in this respect, even, 
they have suffered less than many other simple words in com- 
mon use. 

man is supposed to do -what lie sees he ought to do, I shall do came to 
mean, I am about doing — to be, in fact, a mere announcement of future 
action, more or less remote. But so, you shall do means, radically, you 
ought to do; and, therefore, unless we mean to impose an obligation or to 
announce an action on the part of another person, over whom we claim 
some control, shall, in speaking of the mere future voluntary action of 
another person, is inappropriate; and we therefore say you will, assuming 
that it is the volition of the other person to do thus or so. Hence, in 
merely announcing future action, we say, I or we shall, you, he, or they 
will : and, in declaring purpose on our own part, or on the part of another, 
obligation, or inevitable action, which we mean to control, we say, I or we 
will, you, he, or they shall. Official orders, which are in the form you will, 
are but a seeming exception to this rule of speech, which they, in fact, 
illustrate. For in them the courtesy of superior to subordinate, carried to 
the extreme even in giving command, avoids the semblance of compulsion, 
while it assumes obedience in its very language. Should and would follow, 
of course, the fortunes of shall and will. — Richard Grant White, in the 
Galaxy, May, 1808. 
See, also, Webster's Dictionary, under the several words. 



ANALYSIS OF THE VERB. 95 

220. Do, as an u auxiliary," is used as follows : — 

1. To give emphasis ; as, "Perdition catch my soul, but I 
do love thee." — Shak. 

2. As a substitute, to save the repetition of another verb, 
especially in comparative clauses; as, "He writes better than I 
do," {%. e., than I write). 

3. In ashing questions, to soften the abruptness of the 
regular form; as, "Do you know? " 

4. In negative sentences, it seems to be more euphonic ; 
as, " I do not go." 

221. Did is similarly used in the past tense. 

The Subjunctive Mood. 

222. The more critical modern usage restricts the sub- 
junctive mood to one tense, 1 in the active voice, and two, in 
the verb to be, and the passive voice, and enjoins the following : — 

Kule.— The subjunctive mood is used when both contin- 
gency or doubt, and futurity are expressed. 

223. The truth is, that the subjunctive idea resides, not in 
the verb, but in the entire subjoined clause, and the so- 
called subjunctive form, to express futurity, is an elliptical 
future, with shall or will omitted ; 2 as, — 

Future. — If he be there, give him this book, i. e. : — 

If he shall (to) be there, etc. 
Present. — If he is there (now), give him this book. 

224. Every tense of the indicative and potential moods 
may be used in dependent clauses. 

Note. — The discussion of the potential and subjunctive 
moods has been much embarrassed by attempts to ally them to 
the subjunctive and optative moods of the Latin and Greek. The 
idiom of the English tongue so differs from that of these lan- 
guages, that, except for comparative study, or to facilitate trans- 
lation, the English student is rather hindered than assisted by 
such discussion. 

A. & P. Gr. — 1 435. 2 857. 
C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 20. 8. 2 65. 



96 ANALYSIS. 



Structure of Words. 

225. A simple word, conveying a single notion or 
idea, and of whose origin we can give no account, is called a 
root. 

1. Simple words (and some derivatives), from foreign lan- 
guages, when used to form English derivatives, are also called 
radicals, or roots. 

2. It is upon the root of a derivative that it depends for its 
class meaning; as, respect, inspect, spectator, spectacle. 

3. The idea contained in a radical word may take a number 
of directions, or relations, by having used with it prefixes or 
suffixes, adding to, restricting, or deflecting, its meaning. Tiius, 
from the idea of seeing, or looking, expressed by the Latin word 
specio, spectum, we may have, — 

inspect — to look into, 
inspect — to look back, or again. 
Circumspect — looking around. 
Spectacle — that which is seen. 
Spectator — one who looks, etc. 

226. Derivative words are formed from simple roots, and 
also from foreign words, — 

1. By changing the voivel, or modifying the conso- 
nants, in the root. 1 Thus, from shake we have shock; from 
strong, strength ; from the Latin signum, or French signe, we 
have sign ; 

2. By prefixes and suffixes, added to the root; as, mis- 
guide, imable, withdraw, strengthen, shocking, reader, etc. 

227. Latin roots are rarely used, in English, in their primi- 
tive form. Thus, in permit, submit, the root is mit ; and in 
deport, porter, it is port ; but these are, in English, inseparable, 
•retaining, however, their original signification, and imparting it 
to the derivative ; as (Latin), port, to carry, er (sufiix;, one who ; 
porter, a carrier. 

A. & P. Gr. — i Appendix I. 



PREFIXES. 



97 



228. A prefix is a letter or syllable before the root of a 
derivative. 
229* A suffix is a letter or syllable after the root. 

Prefixes. 

230. The prefixes are, for the most part, of Saxon, 
Latin, or Qreeh origin. The most common are as follows : — 





I. 


Prefixes of Saxon Origin. 


A 


signifying in, on, at ; 


as, 


abed, abroad. 


Be 




adding, intensity; 


as, 


bespeak. 


En 




in, into, to make ; 


as, 


enthrone, enable. 


Fm(f or 


en)" 


to make ; 


as, 


embellish. 


For 




the contrary ; 


as, 


forbear, forget. 


Fore 




before ; 


as, 


foretell, forewarn. 


Im 




to make ; 


as, 


imbitter. 


Mid 




middle ; 


as, 


midway. 


3fis 




failure ; 


as, 


mistake. 


N(ne) 




not; 


as, 


never. 


Over 




above ; 


as, 


overlay. 


Out 




excelling ; 


as, 


outrun. 


To 




this ; 


as, 


to-day, to-morrow. 


Un 




not; 


as, 


unkind, unjust. 


Tin 




to deprive of; 


as, 


uncrown. 


Tinder 




beneath ; 


as, 


underlay, undervalue 


Up 




upward ; 


as, 


uplift, upstart. 


With 




against ; 


as, 


withhold, withstand. 



A, ab, abs " 
Ad* 

Am " 



II. Latin Prefixes. 



from; 

to; 

round, or about ; 



as, avert, abstract, 
as, admit, adhere, 
as, ambition. 



* Ad sometimes changes d for the sake of euphony, and takes the forms 
ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at; as, accede, «/fect, aggressor, allude, 
annex, append, arrest, assent, attend. 

9 



98 



ANALYSIS. 



-Ante* signifying 
Bene " 

Bis (hi} " 
Circum " 
Cis " 

Con\ " 

Contra " 
2>e " 

'Bis(di,dif) u 
E, eoc, ef " . 

Extra " 

JnJ(with vb.)" 
Jw§( « adj.)" 

Inter " 

Intro " 

tlnxta " 

.Per " 

jPos£ b < 

1V6 (2V«e) " 
Breter " 
JFVo " 

Metro ' 



before ; as, 

well ; as, 

two, twice 5 as, 

around ; as, 

on this side ; as, 

with, together; as, 

against; as, 

down ; as, 

apart; as, 

out (from) ; as, 

equally ; as, 

beyond ; as, 

in or into ; as, 

not; as, 

between ; as, 

within ; as, 

near to ; as, 

not ; as, 
against, or in way of ; as, 

through; as, 

after ; as, 

before ; as, 

beside, past; as, 

forth; as, 

back ; as, 

backward; as, 

apart; as, 

without ; as, 

under; as, 



antecedent,anticipate. 

benevolent. 

biped, bisect. 

circumference. 

cis- Atlantic. 

connect, consent. 

contradict. 

descend, degrade. 

disperse, diverge. 

eject, expel, effect. 

equilateral. 

extraordinary. 

include. 

indecent. 

intersperse. 

introduce. 

juxtaposition. 

nonsense. 

obstruct, oppose. 

persecute. 

postpone. 

prejudice. 

pretermit. 

propel. 

remit. 

retrograde. 

seduce. 

sincere (cera, wax). 

subject. 



* Anti sometimes, but to be distinguished from the Greek anti, against. 

f Con, for euphony, takes the forms co, cog, com, col, cor / as, cohere, 
connate, compel, collect, correlative. 

X Also, il, inn, iv ; as, iZluminate, import, irradiate. 

§ Takes, also, the forms ig, il,im,ir; as, ignoble, illegal, immortal, 
irregular. 

|| For euphony, oc, of, op j as, occur, offend, opposite. 

IT Euphonic forms, sue, suf, sug, sup, sur, sus ; as, swecor, s«/fer, 
suggest, suppress, surreptitious, swspect. 



GREEK PREFIXES. 



99 



Subter signifying underneath ; 


as, 


subterfuge. 


Super 


a 


over; 


as, 


superfluous. 


Sur 


a 


over; 


as, 


surcharge. 


Trans 


a 


across ; 


as, 


transport. 


Ultra 


a 


beyond; 


as, 


ultramarine. 



III. Greek Prefixes. 

A or an (a, av) signifying not; as, anarchy. 



Amphi (ap<pi) 


a 


both; 


as, 


amphibious. 


Ana (ava) 


a 


up; 


as, 


anagram. 


Anti (avTt) 


a 


against ; 


as, 


antichrist. 


Apo («7T0) 


a 


from; 


as, 


apostle. 


Arch {aqxoq) 


a 


chief; 


as, 


archbishop. 


AutO (avrog) 


a 


self; 


as, 


autobiography. 


Cata {y.ara) 


it 


down; 


as, 


catastrophe. 


Dia (t*t«) 


a 


through ; 


as, 


diameter. 


En O) 


a 


in; 


as, 


encourage. 


JEpl (sTUt) 


a 


upon ; 


as, 


epigram. 


Ex (*§) 


a 


out of; 


as, 


exodus. 


Eu(sv) 


a 


well; 


as, 


euphony. 


Hani (»i) 


a 


half; 


as, 


hemisphere. 


Hetero (st^oc) 


a 


different ; 


as, 


heterogeneous. 


Hyper (imeo) 


a 


over ; 


as, 


hypercritical. 


Hypo (rmo) 


a 


under ; 


as, 


hypothesis. 


Meta (iura) 


a 


change ; 


as, 


metamorphose. 


Ear a (naqa) 


a 


beside ; 


as, 


paradox. 


Eeri (nsqt) 


a 


around ; 


as ; 


, perimeter. 


Syn* (ow) 


a 


with ; 


as, 


synthesis. 



These prefixes have other meanings, in composition ; 

the particular sense can be determined only by use. 

231. Many derivatives, and especially those from foreign 
roots, are used in a somewhat tropical, or conventional 

sense, but their meaning always bears a relation to the original 
root. 

* This takes, also, for euphony, the forms sy, sym, syl ; as, system, 
sympathy, s^logism. 



100 ANALYSIS. 

232. Some derivatives have many special meanings, 

according to the subject to which they refer, and their relation to 
other words, in composition. 

233. 1. It is recommended that at stated times the pupil be 
required to prepare lists of words under each of these prefixes, 
and that the teacher show how such as are used in a modified 
sense have lost their literal meaning. 

2. For an additional exercise, some native or foreign root may 
be given, which will combine with each of several prefixes, — the 
pupils to form a list, and write out their meanings. 

*** See exercises at the end of these tables. 

234. A suffix is a letter or syllable, placed after a 
root, or primitive, to modify its signification. 

*** For the grammatical structure of words, i. e., the 
derivation of one part of speech from another, see A. & P. Gr., 
Appendix I. 

[No exact general definition can be given of many of the suf- 
fixes. There is usually some slight ellipsis to be supplied : thus, 
engine, a machine ; eer, one who, — engineer, one who manages 
a machine ; courtier, one attached to a court.] 

Table of Suffixes. 

Able (ible), that can be; as, justifiable, that can be justified. 
Aceous, consisting of, resembling; as, cretaceous (creta), 
chalky. 

AciotlS, full of; as, loquacious Qoquor), talkative. 

Acle, the thing ; as, snectacle, the thing seen. 

Acy, being, state, etc* ; as, delicacy, a being delicate. 

Age, collection of, state of being ; as, cordage, bondage. 

Al, act of; as, avowaZ, act of confessing. 

Al, relating to ; as, floral, parentaZ. 

An, one who ; as, partisan. 

An, belonging to; as, plebeian (plebs). 

Ance, ancy, being; as, vigilance, constancy. 

Ane, belonging to ; as, mundane, belonging to the world. 



TABLE OF SUFFIXES. 101 

Ant, being, "ing; " as, abundant, abounding. 

dint, one who; as, assista?itf, one who helps. 

Ar, belonging to, having ; as, lunar, muscular. 

Ar, one who ; as, beggar, scholar. 

Ard, one who ; as, sluggard, one who is slothful. 

Ary, one who ; as, antiquary. 

Ary, relating to ; as, literary. 

Ary, place where, thing that; as, library, luminary. 

Ate, having, being ; as, animate, having life, illiterate. 

Ate, one who ; as, delegate, potentate. 

Ate, to make, give, take ; as, facilitate, animate. 

Ble. See Able, Ible. 

Cle. See Acle, Idle. 

Dom, place where, state of being ; as, kingdom, freedom. 

Ee, one who, or to whom ; as, absentee, trustee. 

Eev, one who ; as, engineer, mutineer. 

En, made of; as, wooden, woolen. 

En, to make ; as, deepe?z, harde?z, shorten. 

Ence, being, or state ; as, innocence, cadence, 

Ent, one who ; as, president, student. 

Ent, being, " ing; " as, benevolent, impotent. 

Ev, one who ; as, lecturer, teacher. 

Escence, state of growing or becoming; as, convalescence. 

Escent, growing or becoming ; as, convalescent, quiescent. 

Et, little ; as, tabled, casket. 

Etic, having; as, pathetic. 

Efy, state of; as, sobriety, propriety. 

Ey, consisting of, or like; as, clayey. 

Ful, full of; as, careful, boneful. 

Ey \_Facio], to make; as, puri/y, magni/y. 

Hood, state of; as, boyhood, manhood. 

lac, one who; as, maniac {mania). 

lac, belonging to ; as, demomac. 

Ible (able), that can be; as, visible, sensible. 

Ic, thing, art, science; as, logic, fabric. 

Ic, one who; as. critic [xQiTijg]. 

9* 



102 ANALYSIS. 

Ic, leal, belonging or relating to ; as, oceanic, poeticaZ. 

Ice, a being, or thing done ; as, justice, service. 

Tele, little ; as, particZe. 

les, science of; as, pneumatics (pneuma, air). 

Id, being; as, frigid, timid (timeo, to fear). 

lev, one who ; as, courtier. 

He, belonging to, that may be ; as, juveniZe, dociZe. 

Ine, belonging to, of ; as, canine, infantile. 

Ine, one who ; as, marine. 

Ion, act of, being; as, animation, expulsion (pello). 

Is, act, or state of; as, synthesis, crisis. 

Jse, ize, to make, give ; as, civilize, characterise. 

Ish, somewhat, or like ; as, whitish, boyish. 

Ish, to make; as, finis7i, cherish (cams, dear). 

Ism, state of being, doctrine of; as, barbarism, toryism. 

1st, one who ; as, artist, jurist. 

Ite, one who ; as, favorite. 

Ite, having; as, definite. 

Itude, being, or state ; as, servitude. 

Ity. See Ty. 

Ive, one who ; as, captive, one who is taken. 

Ive, having power, " ing; " as, inventive, active. 

Kin, little ; as, lamb&m. 

less, without; as, artZess, careZess. 

Let , little ; as, streamZetf, veinZe^. 

like, like to, resembling ; as, godZi&e, warZi&e. 

ling, little, young; as, darling, gosling. 

Ly, like ; as, beastZy, cowardZy. 

Iy, denoting manner; as, manfulZ?/, sadly. 

3Ient, being, or state of being, act of; as, concealment. 

Jfflony, state of being, thing that; as, sanctimony. 

Ness, state of being; as, boldness, fondness. 

Oek, little ; as, hilloc7c. 

Or, one who ; as, actor, doctor, spectator. 

Ory, place where, thing that; as, factory, memory. 

Ory, belonging to; as, prefatory, inflammatory. 



LATIN ROOTS. 



103 



Ose, full of; as, jocose, verbose. 

Ot, one who ; as, zealot. 

Ous, full of, consisting of; as, dangerous, fibrows. 

Hy, a being, act of; as, bravery, surgery. 

Ship, office or state of; as, friendship, clerkship. 

Some, some, full of; as, lonesome, frolicsome. 

Ster, one who ; as, gamester, songster. 

T, t7l, 1 thing, being; as, leng^, gift. 

Tude, tide, being or state ; as, beatitude, solitude. 

Ty, being, or state of; as, brevity, novelty. 

JJle, little; as, globwZe, animalc&Zg. 

TJlent, full of, containing; as, fraudule?it. 

JJre, thing, state of being, act of; as, enclosure, picture. 

TVcird, toward; as, homeward, eastward. 

Y, the being or state of; as, honesty, modesty. 

IT, full of, consisting of; as, bloody. 



t Latin Moots.* 

235. Verbs. 
In the accompanying table is given a list of some of the most 
important Latin roots. Many English words, perhaps the ma- 
jority of those derived from the Latin, are taken not from these 
simple roots, but direct from Latin words which are themselves 
derivatives. 



Agit-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Agitat-um, 


Drive, stir. 


Ago, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Act-um, 


Do, act. 


Am,-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Amat-um, 


Love. 


Ard-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Ars-um, 


Burn. 


And-io, 


-Ire, 


-iens, 


Audit-um, 


Hear. 


Cad-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Cas-um, 


Fall. 


Cced-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Caes-um, 


Cut, kill. 



1A. &P. Gr. p. 306.1.2. (2). 

* In this table, the first column contains the present indicative ; the sec- 
ond, the present infinitive ; the third, the present participle ; the fourth, the 
supine [having- nearly the sense of the present infinitive, and the same root 
as the passive participle] ; the fifth is the ordinary English signification. 



Can-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Cant-um, 


Sing. 


Cap-io, 


-ere, 


-iens, 


Capt-um, 


Take. 


Ced-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Cess-um, 


Go, yield. 


Cern-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Cret-um, 


Discern. 


Cit~o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Citat-um, 


Call, stir up. 


Clam-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Clamat-um, 


Exclaim. 


Claud-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Claus-um, 


Shut. 


Clin-o* 


-are, 


-ans, 


Clinat-um, 


Bend, lean. 


Cred-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Credit-um, 


Believe, trust. 


Cresc-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Cret-um, 


Grow. 


Cub-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Cubit-um, 


Lie down. 


Curr-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Curs-ura, 


Bun. 


Ctit-io,* 






Cuss-um, 


Shake. 


Dic-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Dicat-um, 


Show. 


Dlc-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Dict-um, 


Speak. 


Do, 


dare, 


dans, 


Dat-um, 


Give. 


Doc-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Doct-um, 


Teach. 


Duc-Oy 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Duct-um, 


Lead. 


Eo, 


Ire, 


iens, 


It-um, 


Go. 




esse (to be), ens, 




Be. 


Fac-io, 


-ere, 


-iens, 


Fact-urn, 


Do, make. 


Fall-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Fals-um, 


Deceive. 


Fend-o,f 


-ere, 




Fens-um, 


Keep off, 
strike. 


Fer-o, 


ferre, 


ferens, 


Lat-um, 


Bear, carry. 


Flu-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Flux-um, 


Flow. 


Frang-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Fract-um, 


Break. 


Fund-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Fus-um, 


Pour, melt. 


Fut-o, X 


-are, 






Blame, dis- 
' prove. 


Ger-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Gest-um, 


Bear, carry. 


Gradi-or, 


(pass.) 


, [grad-i] 


Gress-us, 


Step. 


Graph- o, 


[Gr. 


rww], 


[Gramm-ata 
(written)], 


Write. 



* English words are derived directly from the Latin compounds; as, 
" incline," from inclino ; " concussion," from concussum. 
f English words derived directly from compounds. 
% Obsolete — - found in compounds. 



LATIN ROOTS. 



105 



Hab-eo, 


-$re, 


-ens, 


Habit-um, 


Have, hold. 


Hcer-eo,* 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Haes-um, 


Stick. 


Horr-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 




Be dreadful* 


Jac-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Jacit-um, 


Lie. 


Jac-io, 


-ere, 


-(i)ens, 


Jact-um, 


Throw. 


Jact-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Jactat-um, 


Throw. 


Judic-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Judicat-um, 


Judge. 


Jung-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Junct-um, 


Join. 


Lego, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Legat-um, 


Send. 


Leg-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Lect-um, 


Read, choose. 


Lev-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Levat-um, 


Lift. 


Lig-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Ligat-um, 


Bind. 


Loqu-or, 




(-ens), 


Locut-us, 


Speak. 


Luc-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 




Shine. 


Lud-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Lus-um, 


Deceive. 


Mand-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Mandat-um, 


Command, 
commit. 


Man-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Mans-um, 


Stay. 


Man-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Manat-um, 


Flow. 


Med-eor, 


[Med- 


eri], 


Medic-us, 


Cure. 


Merc- or, 


[Merc 


-ari], 


Mercat-us, 


Buy. 


Merg-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Mers-um, 


Plunge, 


Min-eo, 


-ere, 






Project. 


Minu-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Minut-um, 


Lesson. 


3Iisc-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Mixt-um, 


Mix. 


Mitt-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Miss-um, 


Send. 


Mol-eor, 


[Mol- 


eri], 


Molit-us, 


Build. 


Mon-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Monit-um, 


Warn. 


Monstr-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Monstrat-um, 


Point out. 


Mov-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Mot-um, 


Move. 


Mut-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Mutat-um, 


Change. 


Nasc-or, 


[Nasc 


-i], 


Nat-us, 


Be born. 


Nect-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Nex-um, 


Bind. 


Neg-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Negat-um, 


Deny. 


Noc-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Nocit-um, 
Noxius. 


Hurt. 



* As, ad-here, co-here, etc. 



106 




ANALYSIS. 




J¥osc-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Not-um, 


Know, 


Nunci-Oi 


-are, 


-ans, 


Nunciat-um, 


Tell. 


Nutr-io, 


-ire, 


-iens, 


Nutrit-um, 


Hourish. 


Ole-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Olit-um, 


Grow, emit 
odor. 


Opin-or, 


[-ari], 






Think. 


Opt-O (07TTU)), 








See. 


Opt-o, 


-are, 




Optat-um, 


Wish. 


Orl-or, 


[Orir- 


i], 


Ort-us, 


Arise. 


Orn-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Ornat-um, 


Adorn. 


Or-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Orat-um, 


Speak. 


Pand-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Pans-um, 


Open, spread. 


Par-eoy 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Parit-um, 


Appear. 


Par-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Parat-um, 


Prepare. 


Pasc-o, 


-ere, 


4 -ens, 


Past-um, 


Feed. 


Pell-o* 






Pellat-um, 


Call, name. 


Pell-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Puls-um, 


Drive. 


JPend-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Pens-um, 


Hang. 


JPend-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Pens-um, 


Weigh. 


JPer-eo, 


-ire, 


-iens, 


Perit-um, 


To be lost. 


ret-o, 


ere, 


-ens, 


Petit-urn, 


Seek, ask. 


\Flian-o (if envoi), 






Appear, tell. 


Pher-o ((fsqvj 


), 






Carry. 


Tlng-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Pict-um, 


Paint. 


Plac-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Placit-um, 


Please. 


Tlawd-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Plaus-um, 


Applaud. 


JPle-O (ti?.b(x)), 






Plet-um, 


Fill. 


T'llc-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Plicat-um, 


Fold. 


JPon-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Posit-um, 


Place. 


Porto, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Portat-um, 


Carry. 


Possum, 


[Posse 


,] [Potens,] 


Be able. 


Prec-or, 


[-ari], 




Pre cat-us, 


Pray. 


Prehend-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Prehens-um, 


Seize. 


Pretn-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Press-um, 


Press. 


Prob-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Probat-um, 


Prove. 



♦Derivatives from compounds; as, appellation. 



LATIN BOOTS. 



107 



Tud-eOi 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Pudit-um, 


Be ashamed. 


JPung-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Punct-um, 


Point, prick. 


Pllt-O, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Putat-um, 


Prune, think. 


Qnwr-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Quaesit-um, 


Seek, ask. 


Hap-io, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Rapt-um, 
Rat-us,* 


Seize. 
Thinking. 


Heg-o,t 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Rect-um,f 


Rule, lead. 


llld-eoy 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Ris-um. 


Laugh. 


Hog-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Rogat-um, 


Ask. 


ttump-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Rupt-um, 


Break. 


Sal-io, 


-ire, 


-iens, 


Salt-um, 


Jump. 


Scand-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Scans-um, 


Go, mount. 


Sci-o, 


-Ire, 


-iens, 


Scit-um, 


Know. 


Scop-eo (axoTraw), 






See, view. 


Scrib-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Script-um, 


Write. 


Sec-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Sect-um, 


Cut. 


Sed-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Sess-um, 


Sit. 


Sent-iOy 


-ire, 


-iens, 


Sens-um, 


Think, feel. 


Sequ-or, 


[Sequens], 


Secut-us, 


Follow. 


Serv-io, 


-ire, 


-iens, 


Servit-um, 


Serve, obey. 


SerV'O, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Servat-um, 


Save, keep. 


Sist-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Stat-um, 


Place, put. 


Soci-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Soceat-um, 


Join. 


Sol-OTy 


-ari, 


[-ans], 


Solat-us, 


Cheer, 


Solv-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Solut-um, 


Loose, free. 


Sparg-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Spars-um, 


Scatter. 


Sjiec-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Spect-um, 


Look. 


Spect-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Spectat-um, 


Look. 


Sper-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Sperat-um, 


Hope. 


Spir-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Spirat-um, 


Breathe. 


Splend-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Splendid-us, 
[adjective,] 


Shine. 


Spond-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Spons-um, 


Promise. 


Stem-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Strat-um, 


Spread, ex- 
tend. 


* Ratio, 


, reason. 


t Rectus, right ; regula 


, a rule. 



108 




ANALYSIS. 




Stingu-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Stinct-um, 


Mark, 


$tin-0,* [obs.] (root start), 




Fix. 


Sto, 


stare, 


stans, 


Stat-um, 


Stand, set. 


String-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Strict-urn, 


Bind. 


Stru-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Struct-um, 


Build. 


Stud-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 




Study. 


Stup-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 




Be dull. 


Suad-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Suas-um, 


Advise. 


Stim-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Sumpt-um, 


Take. 


Surg-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Surrect-um, 


Rise. 


Tang-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Tact-um, 


Touch. 


Teg-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Tect-um, 


Cover. 


Temper-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Temperat-um, 


Regulate* 


Temn-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Tempt-um, 


Scorn. 


Tend-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Tens-um, 


Stretch. 


Ten-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Tent-um, 


Hold. 


Tent-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Tentat-um, 


Try. 


Ter-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Trit-um, 


Rub. 


Time-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 




Fear. 


Tlng-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Tinct-um, 


Stain. 


Torr-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Tost-um, 


Dry, parch. 


Torqu-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Tort-um, 


Twist. 


Trah-Oy 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Tract-um, 


Draw. 


Trud-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Trus-um, 


Thrust. 


Tmn-eo, 


-ere, 






Swell. 


Und-Oy 


-are, 


-ans, 


Undat-um, 


Rise in waves. 


Ut-or, 






Us-us, 


Use. 


Vac-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Vacat-um, 


Be empty. 


Vad-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Vas-um, 


Go. 


Val-eOy 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Valit-um, 


Be well. 


Varic-Oy 


-are, 


-ans, 


Varicat-um, 


Straddle. 


Veh-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Vect-um, 


Carry. 


Velio, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Vuls-um, 


Pull. 


Vel-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Velat-um, 


Cover. 


Ven-iOy 


-Ire, 


-iens, 


Vent-um, 


Come, go. 



Found only in compounds ; as, destiney etc. 







LATIN 


ROOTS. 




Vere-or, 






Verit-us, 


Fear. 


Vert-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Vers-um, 


Turn. 


Vid-eo, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Vis-um, 


See. 


Vinc-io, 


-Ire, 


-iens, 


Yinct-um, 


Bind. 


Vinc-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Vict-um, 


Conquer* 


Viv-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Vict-um, 


Live. 


Voc-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Vocat-um, 


Call. 


Vol-o, 


-are, 


-ans, 


Yolat-um, 


Fly. 


Vol-o, 


(velle), 


-ens, 


Volit-nm, 


Wish. 


Volv-o, 


-ere, 


-ens, 


Yolut-um, 


Roll. 



109 



236* Nouns, Adjectives, etc. 

Aer (arjo), the air; as, aerial. 

Agon («yo*')> a conflict; as, agony, agonize. 

Alg- (cdyog), pain; as, neuralgia, (vsvqov, a nerve). 

Allel (aMrjXvjv), one another; as, parallel. 

Alt-US, high; as, altitude. 

Amic-US, a friend; as, amicable. 

JLnvpl-US, large ; as, amplify, ample. 

Angul-us, an angle ; as, triangle, angular. 

Anim-a, wind (spirit) ; as, animation, animal, 

Anim-US, the mind; as, magnanimous. 

Ann-us, a year; as, annual, perennial. 

Antlirop- (ardQWTiog), a man; as, misanthrope, philanthropy. 

Antiqu-US, ancient; as, antiquity. 

Apt-US, fit, meet; as, aptitude, adapt. 

Aqua, water; as, aqueduct (duco, to lead). 

Arbiter, arhitr-i, a judge ; as, arbitration. 

Arbor, a tree ; as, arboriculture. 

Arch (ao^rj), rule, beginning; as, anarchy, monarch. 

AritJim- (aQiQuog), number; as, arithmetic. 

Arm-a, arms; as, armor, army. 

Ars, art-is, skill, art; as, artifice, artisan. 

Asper, rough ; as, asperity, exasperate. 

Astr-on (aorqov), a star; as, astronomy. 

10 



110 ANALYSIS. 

Axir-is, the ear; as, auricular, aurist. 

Aut-OS (uuto?), one's self; as, autobiography. 

jLUQDlli-um, help; as, auxiliary. 

A.varit (Fr.), before, forward; as, advantage. 

Marhar-us, rude ; as, barbarity. 

^Beat-US, happy ; as, beatitude. 

JBeau, belle (Fr.), beautiful; as, beauty, embellish, 

IZell-um, war ; as, belligerent. 

Mene, good; as, benefit, benevolence. 

Bihl-os (/JijMos)-, a book; as, biblical. 

JBi-OS (/fros), life; as, biography. 

JBis (bi, hi?i), two, twice ; as, bisect, bigamy. 

IZrev-is, short; as, brevity, abbreviate. 

Calcul-us, a stone, a pebble ; as, calculate. 

Camp-US, a plain ; as, camp, encamp. 

Caput (capit-), the head; as, capital, decapitate. 

Caro, cam-is, flesh; as, carnivorous. 

Cav-us, hollow; as, cavity, concave. 

Caus-a, a cause ; as, cause, causality. 

Centr-um, the middle ; as, central. 

Cent-Uin, a hundred; as, century, per cent. 

Cer-a, wax; as, sincere (sine cera, without wax). 

Cert-US, sure ; as, certain, certify. 

Chir (/siq), the hand; as, chirography. 

Chord-a, a, cord, string; as, chord, cordage. 

Chron-os (xqovog), time; as, chronometer, chronology. 

Civ-is, a citizen ; as, civil, citizen. 

Clar-us, clear; as, clarify, declare. 

Class-is, a fleet ; as, classify. 

Cliv-is, a slope ; as, declivity. 

Copi-a, plenty; as, copious. 

Cor, cord-is, the heart; as, cordial, accord. 

Coron-a, a crown ; as, coronation. 

Corp-us, corpor-is, a body; as, corporeal. 

Cosm-os (xoo/iiog), the world, order; as, cosmopolitan. 

Crat-os (xQctTog), government; as, democratic, aristocracy. 

Crit-es (xQityg), a judge; as, critical. 



LATIN ROOTS. Ill 

Crux, cruc-is, a cross ; as, crucify. 

Cur-a, care; as, sinecure. 

Cycl- (xvxlog), a circle; as, cyclopaedia. 

Damn-um, harm, loss ; as, damage, condemn, 

Deca (fc*«), ten; as, decagon, decade. 

Decern, ten; as, decimal. 

De-US, a god ; as, deify. 

Dem-os (Sr it uog), the people; as, demagogue. 

Dens, dent-is, a tooth; as, dentist, indent. 

Di-es, a day; as, diary, meridian. 

Dign-US, worthy ; as, dignify. 

Domin-us, sl master ; as, domineer. 

Doni-ns, a house ; as, domicile, domestic. 

Don-urn, (do), a gift; as, donate, donor. 

Dors-um, the back; as, indorse. 

Dot-OS (Sorog), given; as, dose, anecdote. 

Dox-CL, glory, opinion; as, doxology, paradox, 

Du-o (dvo), two; as, dual, duplicate. 

Dlir-US, hard; as, durable, obdurate. 

Ego, I; as, egotist. 

Ens, ent-is (esse), being; as, absent, present. 

Eqil-US, equal ; as, equality. 

Erg-on Oqyov), work; as, energy. 

Ell («■)> well; as, euphony (yam/, a sound). 

Faci-es, the face ; as, deface, surface. 

Facil-is, easy; as, facility, facilitate. 

Felix, felic-is, happy ; as, felicity, felicitate. 

Femin-a, a woman ; as, feminine. 

Fid-es, faith ; as, fidelity. 

Figur-a, a figure ; as, figurative. 

Fili-us (Fem.fiU-a), a son; as, filial. 

Fin-is, the end; as, finish, define. 

Firm-us, strong; as, firm, confirm. 

Fix-us, fixed ; as, fixity, fixture. 

Faed-us, foeder-is, a league ; as, federal. 

Foil-urn, a leaf; as, foliage, folio. 

Forma, a form ; as, conform, formula. 



112 ANALYSIS. 

For S^ fort-is, chance ; as, fortune, fortuitous. 
Fort-is, strong, brave ; as, force, fortress. 
Franc (Fr.), free; as, franchise, frank. 
Frater, fratr-is, a brother ; as, fraternal, fraternity. 
Frons, front-is, the forehead ; as, frontal, affront. 
Ge (yy\), the earth; as, geography. 
Gel-U, frost ; as, congeal, gelid. 

Gene-a (ysvsa), a beginning, birth; as, genesis, genealogy. 
Genus, gener-is, race, kind; as, progeny, regenerate. 
Gnomon (yv^iayv), a pointer, an index; as, physiognomy. 
Goni-a (ywvia), an angle; as, diagonal. 
Gran-lim, a grain ; as, granary. 

Gramm-a (from y gay w), a letter; as, grammar, telegram. 
Grati-a, favor ; as, gratitude, grace. 
Grav-is, heavy ; as, gravity, grave. 
Grex, greg-is, a flock; as, congregate. 
Her-es, hered-is, an heir; as, hereditary. 
Heli-OS (i^uog), the sun; as, perihelion. 
\ Heac («c), six; as, hexagon. 
Uler-os (hQog), sacred; as, hierarchy. 
Homo, liomin-is, a man; as, homicide, human. 
Hospes, hospit-is, a host or guest; as, hospitality. 
Hum-US, the ground; as, humility, exhume. 
Idi-os (tSiog), peculiar; as, idiom, idiosyncrasy. 
Ignis, fire ; as, igneous, ignite. 
Imag-o, imagin-is, an image ; as, image, imagine. 
Jnsul-a, an island; as, insulate. 
Integer, whole ; as, integrity. 
Int-US, within ; as, interior. 
Ir-a, anger; as, irritate; ire. 
J~our (Fr.), a day; as, journal, adjourn. 
Jug-um, a yoke ; as, conjugate. 
Jus, jur-is, law, right ; as, jurist, injurious. 
tTust-us, just; as, adjust, justify. 
Latus, later-is, the side ; as, lateral, equilateral. 
Lat-us, broad; as, latitude, dilate. 
JLaus, laud-is, praise ; as, laudable. 



LATIN ROOTS. 113 

Lax-US^ loose ; as, relax, laxity. 
Leoo, leg-is, law; as, legislate. 
Libr-CL (lb.), a balance; as, equilibrium. 
Line-a, a line ; as, delineate. 
Lingu-a, a tongue ; as, linguist, language. 
Liter-a, a letter; as, literature. 
Loc-us, a place ; as, location. 

Log-OS (loyog), reason, a word, science; as, geology. 
Long-us, long; as, longitude. 
Lumen, lumin-is, light; as, luminous. 
Lun-a, the moon; as, lunatic. 
Lys-is (Ivoig), a loosing; as, analysis. 
Magister, magistr-i, a master ; as, magistrate. 
Magn-us, great; as, magnitude. 
Mal-e, evil; as, malefactor. 
Man-us, the hand ; as, manuscript. 
Mar-e, the sea; as, submarine. 
Mater, matr-is, a mother ; as, maternal. 
Medi-us, the middle ; as, mediator. 
Mel, mell-is, honey ; as, mellifluent. 
Mem-or, mindful; as, memorial. 
Mens, ment-is, the mind ; as, mental. 
Mens-ur-a, a measure ; as, dimension. 
Metr-um Qustqov), measure; as, geometry, diameter. 
JKille, a thousand ; as, millennium. 
Minister, a servant ; as, administer. 
Miser, wretched; as, commiserate. 
Mod-US, manner, measure ; as, modify. 
Mon-OS (/novog), alone, one; as, monarch. 
Mons, mont-is, a mountain ; as, promontory. 
Mors, mort-is, death; as, mortality. 
Mult-US, many; as, multitude. 
Mund-us, the world; as, antemundane. 
Mun-us, muner-is, a gift; as, munificent. 
Mus-a, a poem, a muse ; as, musician. 
Myst-es (uvot^c), secret; as, mystery. 
10* 



114 ANALYSIS. 

Nav-is, a ship ; as, navigate. 

Neur-on, a nerve ; as, neuralgia. 

Women, nomin-is, a name ; as, denomination. 

Nomas (vopog), a law; as, astronomy. 

Won, not; as, nonsense. 

Nox, noct-is, night; as, equinox. 

Nov-us, new ; as, innovate. 

Null-US, no one ; as, nullify. 

Numer-us, a number ; as, numerical. 

Octo (oxrto), eight; as, octagon. 

Ode, ($9rf), a poem; as, melody, prosody. 

Od-OS (odog), a road; as, method. 

Old-OS (scdog), a form, like; as, spheroid. 

Omn-is, all ; as, omnipotent. 

Onom-a (ovouu), a name; as, anonymous. 

Opus, oper-is, work; as, operation. 

Ordo, ordin-is, order, rank; as, subordinate. 

Ovgan-um, an organ ; as, organize. 

Orth-os (6(jQog) y right, straight; as, orthography. 

Ov-um, an egg; as, oval. 

Oooys (6£vg), sharp, sour; as, oxydize. 

Par, equal, like ; as, disparity. 

Parl-er (Fr.), to speak; as, parlance. 

Pars, part-is, part; as, partition. 

Pas, pant-os ; pan, the whole ; as, pantheism. 

Pass-us, a step ; as, surpass. 

Pater, patr-is, a father; as, patriarch. 

Path-os (icaQog), feeling; as, antipathy. 

Pax, pac-is, peace ; as, pacify. 

Pes, ped-is, afoot; as, pedestrian. 

Pest-is, a plague ; as, pestilence. 

Petr-a (tistqo), a rock; as, petrify. 

Phil-OS (epilog), a lover; as, philosophy. 

Phos, phot-OS (</>ws), light; as, photograph. 

Phras-is, a speech; as, paraphrase. 

Phys-is (ipvoig), nature; as, physiology. 

Plant-a, a plant, the sole of the foot ; as, supplant. 



LATIN ROOTS. 115 

Plan-US, smooth; as, explanation. 

Plen-US, full; as, replenish. 

Pol-is (jioXtg), a city; as, politics. 

Pol]/ (no?.vg), many ; as, polygon. 

Pondus, ponder-is, weight ; as, preponderate. 

Popul-US, the people ; as, population. 

Public-us, public ; as, publication. 

Preci-um, price ; as, depreciate. 

Pred-a, plunder; as, predatory. 

Prim-US, first; as, primitive. 

Princeps, princip-is, first, a prince ; as, principal. 

Priv-US, single ; as, deprive. 

Prop-e, near; as, propinquity. 

Proxim-US, next ; as, proximity. 

Propri-us, one's own, fit ; as, appropriate. 

Pugna, a fight; as, pugnacity. 

Puer, a boy; as, puerile. 

Pulvis, pulver-is, dust ; as, pulverize. 

Pur-us, pure; as, purify. 

Quadr-a, square ; as, quadrant. 

Qiial-is, of what sort ; as, quality. 

Quies, quiet-is, quiet ; as, quiescent. 

Quot, how many; as, quotient. 

Padi-us, spoke of a wheel ; as, radiate. 

Padioc, radic-is, root; as, radical. 

Mat-us, thinking, established ; as, ratify. 

Piv-US, a river; as, derivation. 

Pot-a, a wheel ; as, rotation. 

Potund-US, round; as, routine. 

Sacer, sacr-i, sacred; as, consecrate. 

Solus, salut-is, safety; as, salutary. 

Sanct-us, holy; as, sanctify. 

Sanguis, sanguin-is, blood ; as, sanguinary. 

San-US, sound; as, insanity. 

Sat-is, enough ; as, insatiate. 

Semen, semin-is, seed; as, seminal. 

Semi (Gr. fan), half; as, semicircle. 



116 • ANALYSIS. 

Sex (15), six; as, sextuple. 

Sidus, sidev-is, a star ; as, sidereal. 

Sign-urn, sl sign ; as, signature. 

Simil-is, like ; as, assimilate. 

Solid-us, firm ; as, consolidate. 

Sol-US, alone ; as, solitary. 

Son-us, a sound; as, sonorous. 

Sophi-a (ooipta), wisdom; as, philosophy. 

Sors, so?*t-is, kind ; as, assort. 

Stere-os (orsQsog), solid; as, stereotype. 

Still-a, a drop ; as, distill. 

Styl-OS (gtvIgq), a column, style; as, styliform. 

Summ-a, the whole ; as, summary. 

Super, above; as, superlative. 

Tabul-a, a table; as, tablet. 

Techn-e (jsx vf i)i art or science ; as, polytechnic. 

Tel-OS (rsXog), the end, distance; as, telegraph. 

Teinpus, tempor-is, time; as, temporary. 

Termin-us, the end; as, determine. 

Terr-a, the earth; as, terrestrial. 

Test-is, a witness ; as, testify. 

The-os (Aeos), a god; as, atheist. 

Thes-is (Qeoig), a putting; as, antithesis. 

Tom-OS (ropog), a cutting; as, anatomy. 

Ton-os (rovog'), a sound, a stretching; as, tonic. 

Trepid-us, a trembling; as, intrepid. 

Tres, tri-a, three; as, triangle. 

Trop-OS (rqcmog), a turning; as, tropic. 

Turb-a, a crowd, confusion; as, turbulent. 

JJltim-us, last; as, ultimate, penult. 

JJmbr-u, shadow ; as, umbrella. 

TTn-us, one; as, re-unite, unify, unity. 

Vag-us, a wandering; as, vagabond. 

Van-us, vain, empty ; as, vanity. 

Vap-or, steam; as, evaporate. 

Vavi-us, diverse ; as, variegate. 

Vas, a vessel ; as, vascular. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF WORDS. 117 

Vast-tis, large, desert; as, devastate. 

Verb-um, a word ; as, verbose, adverb. 

Verde, (Fr.) ; (Lat. viridis), green; as, verdant, verdure. 

Venn-is, a worm ; as, vermifuge. 

Ver-us, true ; as, verity, verdict, verify. 

Vi-a, a way ; as, deviate, obvious. 

Vic-is (vice), instead of; as, viceroy, vicegerent. 

Vigor, strength ; as, invigorate. 

Vil-is, vile ; as, revile, vilify. 

Vindex, vindic-is, an avenger; as, vindicate. 

Vir, a man ; as, virile. 

Virt-us, bravery ; as, virtue. 

Vot-um, avow; as, devote. 

Vulg-us, the people ; as, vulgar, divulge. 

Zo-on (lwov), an animal; as, zoology. 

237- Suggestions for the Analysis of Words. 

1. In the foregoing list of Latin verbs (235), we have given 
the several verb stems (except that of the preterite, which 
is not often used in English), as some derivatives come from one, 
and some from another ; as, conduce, root duc-o ; conduct, root 
duct-urn. 

Note. — The philosophy of derivation can not be given in this ele- 
mentary treatise, so as to be of use to one not familiar with the Latin. 
Those who have cultivated that language will readily see a relation be- 
tween most derivatives and the part of the Latin verb from which they 
are taken.* 

2. The principal prefixes and suffixes should be thor- 
oughly mastered, by written and oral exercises, combining 
each with a sufficient number of radical words to fully exempli- 
fy their use, and fix them in the mind. 

3. For this purpose the additional list of radicals (236) may 
also be used. 

* Derivatives from the third root, which is the same in the supine (active) 
and the passive participle in us, have sometimes an active and sometimes 
a passive signification; as, induct, to bring in (active), product, a thing 
produced (passive). 



118 ANALYSIS. 

4. When the pupil has mastered the prefixes and suffixes, 
select any derivative word, at will, analyze it, note carefully 
the meaning of the radical part, and then, from the radical, 
form, by the use of prefixes and suffixes, as many other deriva- 
tives as possible. 

5. Frame sentences containing each. 

6. Discriminate any tropical meaning any of these words may 
assume, and construct sentences containing other words express- 
ing the same sense {238). 

EXAMPLES. 

Just (from just-us), Just-ify, 

Ad-just, In-just-ice, 

Un-just, Un-just-ly, 

Just-ly, Just-ification, 

Just-ice, Re-ad-just. 

" Just men are only free. The rest are slaves." 

" You may adjust the matter by complying with his demands." 

" He that is unjust, let him be unjust still." 

" The criminal was justly condemned." 

" Justice is blind, and holds a pair of scales." 

" I can by no means justify his conduct." 

" It was an act of gross injustice" 

" To suffer unjustly in a righteous cause, is better than to be- 
tray the right." 

" There is no justification for such conduct." 

"It has been displaced again; but you can re-adjust it." 

7. Select any prefix, note its meaning, and then, from the 
list of radicals, form any number of derivatives. Define each. 
Construct sentences containing them. 

EXAMPLES. 

Co-act, to act together, or agree. (Prefix con, together with.) 
Con-cede, to yield, to grant (i. e. to go with another in opinion 
or feeling). 

Con-cession, the act of granting. 
Con-elude, to determine (i, e. shut together). 
" If I tell you how these two did co-act." 



LITERAL AND TROPICAL MEANING. 119 

" I concede the truth of what you say." 

f " He was unwilling to make any concession" 
" Then, grandam, you conclude that he is dead." 
Note. — The following are examples of euphonic changes in 

the prefix : — 

Ac-cede (ad and cedo, to yield), ad. 
Ac-cess (ad and cedo, cessitm). 
Ad-apt (aptare, to fit). 
Af-fix (jingo, fidum). 
Ag-gression (ad and gradior, gressus). 
Al-location (ad and loco, locatum). 
An-nex (ad and necto, nexum, to bind). 
Ap-pear (ad and pareo, paritum). 
Ar-rogance (ad and rogo, to ask). 
As-sent (ad and sentio, to feel, to think). 
At-tract (ad and traho, to draw). 

8. Similarly, select a suffix and form derivatives ; define each, 
and construct sentences as before. 

Literal and Tropical Meaning. 
238. By far the greater number of derivatives suffer some 
slight change, in composition, from the literal sense of radical, 
or prefix, or suffix; and of several recognized senses, the pupil 
must discriminate which to use. 

1. Frequently, the literal sense is not full enough to satisfy 
the English idiom. Thus, Christian, root Christ, suffix an, one 
who, — one who follows Christ. 

2. Derivatives are often used in a figurative sense, because of 
some analogy between their literal signification and that to which 
they are applied; as, circumspect,* literally, looking around, 

* Many derivatives containing Latin prefixes are taken directly from the 
complete form; as, circumspect, is strictly from circumspectus, past parti- 
ciple of circumspicere (from circum and spicere). But the English student 
may much lessen his labor by pursuing the study of the primitives, as indi- 
cated above; and for this purpose we have presented a table containing 
some of the most important primitive roots. 



120 ANALYSIS. 

figuratively ', cautious, wary, discreet (referring to an act of the 
mind or its result) ; sincere, cera, wax, sine, without, i. e. pure, 
unmixed, honest, as, honey without wax. 



Compound Words. 

239. Compound words are of two general classes, as to 
their etymology. 

1, Words formed of two simple English words, and 

embodying the signification of both the primitives. These need 
no discussion; as, ink-stand, table-cloth, horse-car, etc. 

2. A class of words embracing very largely scientific terms, 
and formed of two or more foreign roots, or a foreign root 
united with a primitive word ; as, bio-graphy, from bios (fiiog) 9 
life, and graph- (y^a*/^), a writing; micro-scope, 'micros (uucyog), 
little, and scop- (oxotisu), to see; belligerent, from bellum, war, 
and gerens (gero), bearing. 

240. Such compound words may take prefixes or suffix- 
es, or both ; as, unequivocally, from radicals equus, equal, vox 
(vocis), a word, prefix un, not, suffixes al, belonging to, and ly, 
in a manner. Equivocal, from its derivation, means ambiguous, 
i. e, having different meanings equally appropriate. 

241. General Exercises. 

1. Write and define ten words with the prefix al. 
*** For subsequent exercises take other prefixes. 

2. Write and define, giving literal and tropical meaning of ten 
words from the root spec, spic, spac; as, inspect, from radical 
specio, to look, and prefix in, into, to look into, to examine. 

3. Write ten sentences, each containing one of these words, 
and give the literal and tropical meaning. 

4. Write and define ten words with prefix co (con), and affix 
able (ible) ; as, contemptible. 

5. Use these words in the framing of sentences. 



GENERAL EXERCISES. 121 

6. Make sentences containing the following, and define each : 

Affix, Falsify, 

Prejudice, Contentious, 

Prospect, Irrespective, 

Exert, Respectability, 

Exact, Susceptibility, 

Pretend, Unconscious, 

Secure, Reprehensible, 

Succeed, Sincerity, 

Underrate, Disingenuous. 

7. Write ten sentences each, of the following : — 
(1.) Each containing a primitive word. 

(2.) Each containing a derivative from the same root. 

(3.) Each containing a compound word, and state the simple 
words of which they are made up. 

(4.) In each of the sentences written, point out the nouns. 

(5.) Write ten sentences, each containing one of the following 
verbs : play, speak, wrote, studying, destroyed, intend, delay, 
define, desire, broken. 

(6.) Write ten sentences containing nouns from the same 
roots as the preceding. 

8. Write ten sentences, each containing a noun derived from, 
or allied to, 1 one of the following verbs, 2 viz. : teach, think, heal, 
prefer, intend, suspect, break, derive, persuade, content, deliver. 

9. Write ten sentences, containing each of the following 
words, used as verbs; also, other sentences, using the same 
words as nouns : delay, stick, drive, stay, support, stand, search, 
sound, desire, repose. 

10. Make a list of the derivative words in a paragraph from 
any correct writer ; * analyze and define each. 

Remark. — The value of the parsing lesson, as a means to 
the acquisition of skill in the use of language, may be much en- 
hanced by requiring the pupil to give the etymology of deriva- 
tive words, as well as their grammatical accidents. 

* Selections in this manual from " Exercises for Analysis and Parsing." 
A. & P. Gr. — i Page 307. 1. 2. (1). (2). 2 p a ge 308. 
11 



122 



ANALYSIS. 



Synonyms. 

242. The English language is peculiarly rich in its vocabu- 
lary, and consequently in its variety of synonymous words. 
Such works as Rougefs Thesaurus* or, in the absence of this, 
CrabVs Synonyms, or any good synonymous dictionary, will 
furnish ample material. Few words, if any, have exact syno- 
nyms. A very nice discrimination may, therefore, be made, — 
and a useful exercise may be found in constructing sentences 
with so-called synonymous words, noting in all cases the precise 
shade of meaning which belongs to each. The following are 
examples : — 



I Blemish in the engraving. 
Defect in the instrument. 
Fault in the workmanship. 
I Ravages of disease. 
Desolation of our dwellings. 
Devastation of the country, 
f Origin of evil. 
1 Source of consolation. 



I Moisture of the body. 
Humidity of the atmosphere. 
Dampness of the cellar. 
{Materials of a building. 
Matter for deliberation. 
Subject of conversation. 
J Quickness of apprehension. 
\ Swiftness of an arrow. 



1. Make sentences containing the following words, properly 
used : — 



Defend, 


Protect. 


Combat, 


Oppose. 


Cover, 


Hide. 


Use, 


Employ. 


Bind, 


Tie. 


Finish, 


Conclude. 


Confer, 


Bestow. 


Convince, 


Persuade. 


Obtain, 


Procure. 



Grant, 


Allow. 


Relate, 


Describe. 


Spend, 


Waste. 


Bewail, 


Lament. 


Slander, 


Defame. 


Assert, 


Maintain. 


Assist, 


Relieve. 


Perceive, 


Discern. 


Repress, 


Restrain. 



2. Further selections may be made from the spelling-books 
in common use, or from a synonymous dictionary. 



* Published by Sheldon & Company, New York. This is, without doubt, 
the best book of the kind yet issued. 



X* .A. RT II. 

SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

EXERCISE I. 
243. Select Sentences. 

*** In the following- analyze each sentence as directed (141), and parse 
according to model as directed (178). 

1. He that is diligent shall stand before kings. 

2. The way by example is short; by precept, long (102). 

3. The spirit of truth dwelleth in meekness. 

4. By too much altercation, truth is lost {134. 1). 

5. Not he who has little, but he who desires much, is poor. 

6. Many talk like philosophers, and yet live like fools. 

7. Simplicity of life and manner produces tranquillity and 
peace of mind. 

8. God makes the heir, not man.* 

9. Of all the virtues, gratitude has the shortest memory. 

10. Of all poverty, that * of the mind is the most deplorable. 

11. Of all impudence, the greatest is to deny the truth. 2 

12. Of all the enemies of idleness, want is the most formidable. 

13. Wherever there is flattery, there is sure to be a fool. 

14. Family quarrels and religious disputes, unfortunately, 
know no restraint. 

15. Violence breeds hatred, and hatred, f dissension. 

16. Every may be (108) has a may not be. 

* Ambiguous. f Supply " breeds " [compound sentence], 

A. &P. Gr.— 1682. *869. 

C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 10. Obs. 2. 2 66. Sp. R. 1. 

(123) 



124 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

17. When men speak ill of you, so live that nobody will be- 
lieve them. 

18. Pastime, like * wine, is poison in the morning. 

19. Words spoken {156* 4) of one thing, ought not to be 
perverted to another. 

20. Use temporal, f but desire eternal things. 

21. Vain-glory blossoms, but never bears fruit. 

22. The statement is capable (83. 5) of demonstration. 

23. The house is nearly (193. (&), note) in the middle of the 
block. 

24. Nothing is so secret but J time and truth will reveal it. 

25. The mind, not the act, maketh a man guilty (83. 1). 

26. But all was vain; he had no principles on which they 
could take hold (96. 1). 

27. The great business of man is * to improve his mind and 
govern his manners. 

28. The whole universe is his library ; conversation, his living 
studies ; and remarks upon them are his best tutors. 

29. Learning is the temperance of youth, the comfort of old 
age, and the only sure guide to honor and preferment. 

30. Aristotle says, 2 that to become an able man in any pro- 
fession whatever, three things are necessary — which are, nature, 
study, and practice. 

31. To endure present evils with patience, and wait for expect- 
ed good with long suffering, is equally the part of the Christian 
and the hero. 

32. Adversity overcome is the highest glory; and willingly 
undergone, the greatest virtue : sufferings are but the trials of 
gallant spirits. 

33. Never employ yourself to discern 3 the faults of others, 
but be careful to amend and prevent your own. 

34. There is an odious spirit in many persons, who are better 
pleased to detect a fault than to commend a virtue. 

* Supply " to." f Supply " things." J Equivalent to " that, not." 

A. &P. Gr. — 1798. *802. ^38S. 

C. S. Gr.— i Page 118, R. 4. 2p a ge 111, top. 3p a ge 118, R. 6. 



EXERCISES IN PROSE. 125 

35. The worthiest people are most injured by slanderers ; as 
we usually find that to be the best fruit 1 (83. 1) which the birds 
have been pecking at. 

36. When a man loses his integrity, he loses the foundation 
of his virtue.* 

37. A contented mind is a continual feast; and the pleasure 
of the banquet is greatly augmented by knowing that each man 
may become his own entertainer. 

38. Man is born for society, without which virtue would have 
no followers, the world would be 2 without allurements, and life 
without pleasure. 

39. It 3 is natural for us to contract the passions as well as 
(146. 4, (&)) the habits of those with whom we are familiar; to 
follow their vices, as well as to imitate their virtues. 

40. Be sincere in all your words, prudent in all your actions, 
and obliging in all your manners. 

41. He who begins an affair without judgment, ought not to 
be surprised if it end 4 without success. 

42. If justice direct you in the pursuit of gain, tranquillity 
will attend you in the enjoyment of it. 

43. We are more indebted to our parents than to all the world 
besides. 

44. To other persons we may owe much, but to them we owe 
ourselves. 

45. If ingratitude to others, therefore, is hateful, that which 
is shown to parents is most horrid and detestable. 

46. Make a proper use of your time, and remember that when 
it is once gone it can never be recalled. 

47. Attend diligently to thy business ; it 5 will keep thee from 
wickedness, from poverty, and from shame. f 

48. He who harbors malice in his heart will find, to his sor- 
row, 6 that a viper has been nourished in his bosom. 

49. Men make themselves ridiculous (83. 1), not so much by 

* Transpose this sentence (134). f What will keep thee? 

A. &P. Gr. — *796. *621. *246.\. ±857. 5 246.1. $802. 
C. S. Gr — i Lesson 60. 2 45. 4 65. 6 Page 111, top. 
11* 



126 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

the qualities [which T ] they have, as by the affectation of those 
[which] they have not. 

50. To say little and perforin much, is the characteristic of a 
great mind. 

51. No preacher is so successful as time. It gives a turn to 
thought to the aged, which it 2 was impossible to inspire while 
they were young. 

52. The injuries 1 we do, and those we suffer, are (53. 2, note) 
seldom weighed in the same balance. 

EXERCISE II. 

244. Select ^Paragraphs. 

1. That (121, 4, Rem. 2) every day has its pains and sor- 
rows is universally experienced, and almost universally con- 
fessed. But let us not attend only (158. 1) to mournful truths : 
if we look impartially about us, we shall find that every day has 
likewise its pleasures and its joys.* 

2. We should 3 cherish sentiments of charity towards all men. 
The Author of all good nourishes much piety and virtue in hearts 
that are unknown to us, and beholds repentance ready to spring 
up among many whom we consider as (83. 2, (1)) reprobates. 

3. No one ought 4 to consider himself as insignificant in the 
sight of his Creator. In our several stations we are all sent 
forth to be 5 laborers in the vineyard of our heavenly Father. 
Every man has his work allotted, 6 his talent committed to him ; 
by the due improvement of which he may, in one way or other, 
serve God, promote virtue, and be useful to the world. 

4. The love of praise should be preserved under proper subor- 
dination to the principle of duty. In itself, itf is a useful motive 
to action; but when allowed to extend its influence too far, it 
corrupts the whole character, and produces guilt, disgrace, and 
misery. To be 7 entirely destitute of it, is a defect. To be gov- 

* Illative sentence. (96. 1.) 

f What is the antecedent of it? (See 13. 2.) 

A. &P. Gr.— 1751. 2 246.3. ^363. ±515. ^882. *893. t 869. 

C. S. Gr. — 3 Lesson 12. Obs. 3. « Page 118, R. 6. * Lesson 6Q, Sp. K. 1. 



EXERCISES IN PROSE. 127 

erned by it, is depravity The proper adjustment (£#. 2) of the 
several principles of action in human nature, is a matter that de- 
serves our highest attention. For, when any one of them 
becomes either too weak or too strong, it endangers both our 
virtue and our happiness. 

5. The desires and passions of a vicious man, having once 
obtained an unlimited sway (118), trample him under their feet. 
They make him feel that he is subject to various contradictory 
and imperious masters, who often pull him different ways. His 
soul is rendered the receptacle l (83. 5) of many repugnant and 
jarring dispositions, and resembles some barbarous country, 
cantoned out into different principalities, which are continually 
waging war on one another. 2 

6. Diseases, poverty, disappointment, and shame (30. 2, note), 
are far from being, in every instance, the unavoidable doom 3 of 
man. They are much more frequently the offspring of his own 
misguided choice. Intemperance engenders disease, sloth pro- 
duces poverty, pride creates disappointments, and dishonesty 
exposes 4 to shame. The ungoverned passions of men betray 
them into a thousand follies, their follies 5 into crimes, and their 
crimes into misfortunes. 

7. When we reflect on the many distresses which abound in 
human life ; on the scanty proportion of happiness which any 
man is here allowed to enjoy; on the small difference which the 
diversity of fortune makes on that scanty proportion (00. 2, (d)) ; 
it 6 is surprising, that envy should ever have been a prevalent 
passion among men, much more that it should have prevailed 
among Christians. Where so much is suffered in common, little 
room is left for envy. There is more occasion for pity and sym- 
pathy, and an inclination to assist each other. 7 

8. At our first setting out in life, when* yet unacquainted 
with the world and its snares, when every pleasure enchants with 

* Supply " we are." 

A. &P. Gr.~ 1796, 797,811. *673. $799. ±808. *978.Q, 
C246.Z. T673. 
C. S. Gr.— i Lesson 60. 



128 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

its smile, and every object shines with the gloss of novelty, let 
lis beware 1 of the seducing appearances which surround us, and 
recollect what others have suffered from the power of headstrong 
desire. If we allow any passion, even though it be esteemed 
innocent, to acquire an absolute ascendency, our inward peace 
will be impaired. But if any which has the taint of guilt take 
early possession of our mind, we may date from that moment 
the ruin of our tranquillity. 

9. Every man has some darling passion, which generally af- 
fords the first introduction to vice. The irregular gratifications, 
into which it occasionally seduces him, appear under the form of 
venial weaknesses ; and are indulged, in the beginning, with 
scrupulousness and reserve. But, by longer practice, these re- 
straints weaken, and the power of habit grows. One vice brings 
in another to its aid. By a sort of natural affinity, they connect 
and entwine themselves together; till their roots come to be 
spread wide 2 and deep over all the soul. 

EXERCISE III. 
245* Moral Reflections. 

1. Whence arises the misery of this present world? It is not 
owing to our cloudy atmosphere, our changing seasons, and in- 
clement skies. It is not owing to the debility of our bodies, or to 
the unequal distribution of the goods of fortune. Amidst all dis- 
advantages of this kind, a pure, a steadfast and enlightened mind, 
possessed of strong virtue, could enjoy itself in peace, and 
smile 3 at the impotent assaults of fortune and the elements. It 
is within ourselves that misery has fixed its seat. Our disordered 
hearts, our guilty passions, our violent prejudices and misplaced 
desires, are the instruments of the trouble which we endure. 
These sharpen the darts which adversity would otherwise point 
in vain against us. 

2. While the vain 4 and the licentious are reveling in the 

A. &P. Gr. — 1468. *685. $958. ±201. 
C. S. Gr. —s Lesson 70, Qbs. 5. * 10, Obs. 2. 



EXERCISES IN PROSE. 129 

midst of extravagance and riot, how little do they think of those 
scenes of sore distress which are passing at that moment 
throughout the world — multitudes* struggling for a poor subsis- 
tence, to support the wife and children whom they love, and who 
look up to them with eager eyes for that bread which they can 
hardly procure ; multitudes groaning under sickness in desolate 
cottages, untended and unmourned ; many, apparently in a bet- 
ter situation of life, pining away in secret with concealed griefs ; 
families weeping over the beloved friends whom they have lost, 
or, in all the bitterness of anguish, bidding those (83. 2) who 
are just expiring, the last adieu ! 

3. Never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil. 
Familiarize not yourself with it, in the slightest instances, with- 
out fear. Listen with reverence to every reprehension of con- 
science, and preserve the most quick and accurate sensibility to 
right and wrong. If ever your moral impressions begin to de- 
cay, and your natural abhorrence of guilt 1 to lessen, you have 
ground to dread that the ruin of virtue is fast approaching. 

4. By disappointments and trials, the violence of our passions 
is tamed, and our minds are formed to sobriety and reflection. 
In the varieties of life, occasioned by the vicissitudes of worldly 
fortune, we are inured to habits both of the active and of the 
suffering virtues. How much soever 2 we complain of the vanity 
of the world, facts plainly show, that if its vanity were 3 less, it 
could not answer the purpose of salutary discipline. Unsatisfac- 
tory as it is,f its pleasures are still too apt to corrupt (83. 5) 
our hearts. How fatal, then, must the consequences have been, 
had 4 it yielded us more complete enjoyment! If, with all its 
troubles, we are in danger of being too much attached to it, how 
entirely would it have seduced our affections, if no troubles had 
been mingled with its pleasures ! J 

* The object of "think of," in the preceding clause; so, also, "multi- 
tudes," "many," "families," in the following. These are in apposition 
with " scenes of sore distress," and used to particularize them. 

f An idiomatic clause, having nearly the force of the abridged nomina- 
tive independent and participle. 

| This is a sentence very difficult of analysis. It has the form of a com- 
A. &P. Gr. — 1978. G. ^1042. 8. 2439.2. *389. 



130 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

5. In seasons of distress or difficulty, to abandon ourselves 
to dejection, carries no mark of a great or a worthy mind. In- 
stead of* sinking under trouble, and declaring that u his soul is 
weary of life," it 1 becomes a wise and a good man, in the evil 
day, with firmness to maintain his post; to bear up against the 
storm ; to have recourse to those advantages which, in the worst 
of times, are always left to integrity and virtue, and never to 
give up the hope that better days may yet arise. 

6. How many young persons have at first set out in the world 
with excellent dispositions of heart; generous, charitable, and 
humane ; kind to their friends, and amiable among all with whom 
they had intercourse ! — and yet how often have we seen all those 
fine appearances unhappily blasted in the progress of life, merely 
through the influence of loose and corrupting pleasures ; and 
those very persons who promised once to be blessings 2 to the 
world, sunk down, in the end, [so as] to 3 be the burden and 
nuisance of society ! 

7. The most common propensity of mankind is to store futurity 
with whatever is agreeable to them ; especially in those periods 
of life when imagination is lively, and hope is ardent. Looking 
forward to the year now beginning, they are ready to promise 
themselves much from the foundation of prosperity which they 
have laid, from the friendships and connections which they have 
secured, and from the plans of conduct which they have formed. 
Alas! how deceitful do 4 all these dreams of happiness often 
prove ! While many are saying in secret to their hearts, " To- 
morrow shall be as this day, and more abundant/' we are obliged 
in turn to say to them, " Boast not yourselves of to-morrow, for 
you know not what a day may bring forth." 

pound sentence with two complex members, each containing a conditional 
clause. The second part, after the words " attached to it," seems to be in 
some sense limited by the first. It is, however, perhaps, better to regard 
the second part as a logical sequence (95). 
* What is the antecedent of the relation shown by " instead of" ? 

A. & P. Gr. — 1 246. 4. 2 799. 3 g84. * 502. 

C. S. Gr. — s p a ge 118, It. 7. * Lesson 26. 



EXERCISES IN PROSE. 131 

EXERCISE IV. 
246. The Sill of Science. 

1. In that season of the year, when the serenity of the sky, 
the various fruits which cover the ground, the discolored foliage 
of the trees, and all the sweet, but fading graces of inspiring 
autumn, open the mind to benevolence, and dispose it for con- 
templation, I was wandering in a beautiful and romantic country, 
till curiosity began to give way to weariness, and I sat down on 
the fragment of a rock overgrown with moss where the rustling 
of the falling leaves, the dashing of waters, and the hum of the 
distant city, soothed my mind into a most * perfect tranquillity ; 
and sleep insensibly stole upon me, as I was indulging the agree- 
able reveries which the objects around me naturally inspired.* 

2. I immediately found myself in a vast, extended plain, in 
the middle of which arose a mountain, higher than [that which] 
I had before any conception of. It was covered with a multitude 
of people, chiefly {193. 4, (a)) youth, many of whom pressed 
forward with the liveliest expression of ardor in their counte- 
nance, though the way was in many places steep and difficult 
(157. 1). 

3. I observed [that] those who had but just begun to climb 
the hill, thought themselves not far from the top ; but as they 
proceeded, new hills were continually rising to their view, and 
the summit of the highest {153. 4) they could before discern 
seemed but 2 the foot of another, till the mountain at length 
appeared to lose itself in the clouds. 

4.< As I was gazing on these things with astonishment, a friend- 
ly instructor suddenly appeared. " The mountain before thee," 
said he, " is the Hill of Science. On the top is the temple of 
Truth, whose head is above the clouds, and a veil of pure light 
covers her 3 face. Observe the progress of her votaries; be si- 
lent and attentive." 

* Make a diagram of the members and clauses in this sentence, after the 
models in § 143. 

A. &P. Gr. — 1££4. 2535.5. 31046.1. 



132 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

5. After I had noticed a variety of objects, I turned my eyes 
towards the multitudes who were climbing the steep ascent, and 
observed amongst them a youth of a lively look, a piercing eye, 
and something* fiery and irregular in all his motions. His name 
was Genius. He darted like an eagle 1 up the mountain, and left 
his companions gazing after him with envy and admiration ; 
but his progress was unequal, and interrupted by a thousand 
caprices. 

6. When Pleasure 2 warbled in the valley, he mingled in her 
train ; when Pride beckoned towards the precipice, he ventured 
to the tottering edge. He delighted in devious and* untried paths, 
and made so many excursions from the road, that his feebler 
companions often outstripped him. I observed that the Muses 
beheld him with partiality, 3 but Truth often frowned and turned 
aside her face. 

7. While Genius was thus wasting his strength in eccentric 
flights, I saw a person of very different appearance, named 
Application. 4 He crept along with a slow and unremitting pace, 
his eyes 2 fixed on the top of the mountain, patiently removing 
every stone that obstructed his way, till he saw most of those 
below f him, who had at first derided his slow and toilsome 
progress. 

8. Indeed, there were few who ascended the hill with equal 
and uninterrupted steadiness ; for, besides the difficulties of the 
way, J they were continually solicited to turn aside, by a numer- 
ous crowd of Appetites, Passions, and Pleasures, whose impor- 
tunity, when once 6 complied with, they became less and less 
able to resist; and though they often returned to the path, the 
asperities of the road were more severely felt ; the hill appeared 
more steep and rugged ; the fruits, which were wholesome and 

* Something, adv. — in some degree — not elegant. 
f = That most of those were below him. 

X Phrase used absolutely, nearly like the case of infinitive mood, A. & P. 
Gr., 886. 

A. &P. Gr.— *823. 3. 21046.1. *802. *796. *769. *321.1. 

C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 62 , Obs. 3 p age 111, top. * Lesson 60. 5 57> 
Sp. R, 1. 616, Obs. 3. 



EXERCISES IN PKOSE. 133 

refreshing, seemed harsh and ill-tasted ; their sight grew dim, 
and their feet tripped at every little obstruction. 

9. I saw, with some surprise, that the Muses, whose business 
was to cheer 1 (80. 3, a) and encourage those who were toiling 
up the ascent, would often sing in the bowers of Pleasure, and 
accompany those who were enticed away at the call of the Pas- 
sions. They accompanied them, however, but a little way, 2 and 
always forsook them when they lost sight of the hill. The tyrants 
then doubled their chains upon the unhappy captives, and led 
them away, without resistance, to the cells of Ignorance or the 
mansions of Misery. 

10. Amongst the innumerable seducers who were endeavoring 
to draw away the votaries of Truth from the path of Science, 
there 3 was one, so little formidable in her appearance, and so 
gentle and languid in her attempts, that I should scarcely have 
taken notice of her, but for the numbers (153. 4) she had im- 
perceptibly loaded with her chains. 

11. Indolence (for so she was called), far from proceeding to 
open hostilities, did not attempt to turn their feet out of the path, 
but contented herself with retarding their progress ; and the pur- 
pose 4 she could not force them to abandon, she persuaded them 
to delay. Her touch had a power like that of the torpedo, which 
withered the strength of those who came within its influence. 
Her unhappy captives still turned their faces towards the temple, 
and always hoped to arrive there ; but the ground seemed to 
slide from beneath 5 their feet, and they found themselves at the 
bottom, before they suspected they had changed their place 
(123. 2). 

12. The placid serenity which at first appeared in their coun- 
tenance, changed by degrees into a melancholy languor, which 
was tinged with deeper and deeper gloom, as they glided down 
the stream of Insignificance — a dark and sluggish water (123. 
4), which is curled by no breeze, and enlivened by no murmur, 
till it falls into a dead sea, where startled passengers are awak- 

A. &P. Gr. — 1622. *828. *529. * 751. $547. 

C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 45. 2 62, Sp. Rule. 

12 



134 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

ened by the shock, and the next moment buried in the Gulf of 
Oblivion. 

13. Of all the unhappy deserters from the paths of Science, 
none l seemed less able to return than the followers 2 of Indo- 
lence. The captives of Appetite and Passion would 3 often seize 
the moment when their tyrants were languid or asleep, to escape 4 
from their enchantment ; but the dominion of Indolence was con- 
stant and unremitted, and seldom resisted till resistance was in 
vain. 

14. After contemplating these things, I turned my eyes towards 
the top of the mountain, where the air was always pure and ex- 
hilarating, the path shaded 5 with laurels and evergreens, and 
the effulgence which beamed from the face of Science seemed 
to shed a glory round her votaries. Happy, said I, are they 
who are permitted to ascend the mountain ! But while I was 
pronouncing this exclamation, with uncommon ardor, I saw 
standing beside me a form of diviner features, and a more benign 
radiance. 

15. " Happier," said she, " are they whom virtue conducts to 
the Mansions of Content! " " What! " 6 said I, " does Virtue, 
then, reside in the vale?" "I am found," said she, " in the 
vale, and I illuminate the mountain ; I cheer the cottager at his 
toil, and inspire the sage at his meditation; I mingle in the 
crowd of cities, and bless the hermit in his cell ; I have a temple 
in every heart that owns my influence, and to him that wishes for 
me, I am already present. Science may raise thee to eminence, 
but I alone can guide thee to felicity ! " 

16. While Virtue was thus speaking, I stretched out my arms 
towards her, with a vehemence which broke my slumber. The 
chill dews were falling around me, and the shades of evening 
stretched 7 over the landscape. I hastened homeward, and re- 
signed the night to silence and meditation. — Aikin. 

A. &P. Gr.— 1308. 2978.5. 3360. *882. $958. *558. 7 323 
C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 14, Obs. 6. * QQ, Sp. K. 6. 



EXERCISES IN PROSE. 135 

EXERCISE V. 
247. The Importance of a Good Education. 

1. I consider a human soul, without education, like * marble 
in a quarry ; which shows none of its inherent beauties, until the 
skill of the polisher fetches out the colors, makes the surface 
shine, 1 and discovers every ornamental cloud, spot, and vein 
that runs through the body of it. Education, after the same 
manner, when it works upon a noble mind, draws out to view 
every t latent virtue and perfection, which, without such helps, are 
never able to make their appearance. 

2. If my reader will give me leave to change the allusion so 
soon upon him, I shall make use of the same instance to illus- 
trate 2 the force of education, which Aristotle has brought to ex- 
plain his doctrine of substantial forms, when he tells us that a 
statue lies hid in a block of marble, and that the art of the 
statuary only clears away the superfluous matter, and removes 
the rubbish. The figure is in the stone, and the sculptor only 
finds it. 

3. What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to a 
human soul. The philosopher, the saint, or the hero, the wise, 
the good, or the great man, very often lies hid and concealed in 
the plebeian, which 3 a proper education might have disinterred, 
and have brought to light. I am therefore much delighted with 
reading the accounts of savage nations, and with contemplating 
those virtues which are wild and uncultivated ; to see courage 
exerting itself in fierceness, resolution in obstinacy, wisdom in 
cunning, patience in sullenness and despair. 

4. Men's passions operate variously, and appear in different 
kinds of actions, according 4 as they are more or less rectified 
and swayed by reason. When one hears of negroes, who, upon 

* Supply " to." It were better, perhaps, to regard " like " as connect- 
ing " soul " and " marble " in a sort of apposition. A. & P. G. — 674. 

t Every, in the sense of all, seems to require a plural verb. Recast the 
sentence to avoid this apparent solecism. 

A. &P. Gr. — 1877. 2 882. *747. *524. 
C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 66, R. 5. 2QQ,T£. 6. 



136 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

the death of their masters, or upon changing their service, hang 
themselves upon the next tree, as it sometimes happens in our 
American plantations, who can forbear admiring their fidelity, 
though it expresses itself in so dreadful a manner ? 

5. It l is, therefore, an unspeakable blessing to be born in 
those parts of the world where wisdom and knowledge flourish ; 
though, it must be confessed, there are, even in these parts, 
several poor uninstructed persons, who are but little above the 
inhabitants of those nations of which I have been here speak- 
ing; as those who have had the advantages of a more liberal 
education, rise above one another by several different degrees 
of perfection. 

6. For, to return 2 to our statue in the block of marble, we 
see it sometimes only begun to be chipped, sometimes rough 
hewn, and but just sketched into a human figure ; sometimes we 
see the man appearing distinctly in all his limbs and features ; 
sometimes we find the figure wrought up to great elegancy ; but 
seldom meet with any to which the hand of a Phidias a or a 
Praxiteles could not give several nice touches and finishings. — 
Addison, 

EXERCISE VI. 

248. Order in the Distribution of our Time. 

1. Time we ought to consider as a sacred trust, committed to 
us by God ; of which we are now the depositories, and are to 
render 4 an account at the last. That portion of it which he lias 
allotted to us, is intended partly for the concerns of this world, 
partly for those of the next. Let each of these occupy, in the 
distribution of our time, that space which properly belongs to it. 

2. Let not the hours of hospitality and pleasure interfere with 
the discharge of our necessary affairs ; and let not what we call 
necessary affairs encroach upon the time which is due to devo- 
tion. To everything there is a season, and a time for every 
purpose under the heaven. If we delay till to-morrow what 
ought to be done to-day, we overcharge the morrow with a bur- 

A. & P. Gr. — 1246. 4. *886. *105. *488. 



EXERCISES IN PROSE. 137 

den which belongs not to it. We load the wheels of time, and 
prevent them from carrying us along smoothly. 

3. He who every morning * plans the transactions of the day, 
and follows out that plan, carries on a thread which will guide 
him through the labyrinth of the most busy life. The orderly 
arrangement of his time is like a ray of light, which darts itself 
through all his affairs. But where no plan is laid, where the 
disposal of time is surrendered merely to the chance of inci- 
dents, all things lie huddled together in one chaos, which admits 
neither of distribution nor review. 

4. The first requisite for introducing order into the manage- 
ment of time, is, to be impressed with a just sense of its value. 
Let us consider 2 well how much depends upon it, and how fast 
it flies away. The bulk of men are in nothing more capricious 
and inconsistent than in their appreciation of time. When they 
think of it as the measure of their continuance on earth, they 
highly prize it, and with the greatest anxiety seek to lengthen 
it out. 

5. But when they view it in separate parcels, they appear to 
hold it in contempt, and squander it with inconsiderate profu- 
sion. While they complain that life is short, they are often wish- 
ing its different periods 3 at an end. Covetous of every other 
possession, of time only they are prodigal. They allow every 
idle man to be master of this property, and make every frivolous 
occupation welcome that can help them to consume it. 

6. Among those who are so careless of time, it is not to be ex- 
pected that order should be observed in its distribution. But by 
this fatal neglect, how many materials of severe and lasting regret 
are they laying up in store for themselves ! The time which they 
suffer to pass away in the midst of confusion, bitter repentance 
seeks afterwards in vain to recall. What was omitted to be done 
at its proper moment,* arises to be the torment of some future 
season. 

* This clause, taken as a whole, is the subject of " arises." {154. 5, C.) 
A. &P. Gr.—i 828. *468. $887. 
C S. Gr. — i Lesson 62, Sp. R. 

12* 



138 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

7. Manhood is disgraced by the consequences of neglected 
youth. Old age, oppressed (156. 4) by cares that belonged to 
a former period, labors under a burden not its own. At the 
close of life, the dying man beholds with anguish that his days 
are finishing, 1 when his preparation for eternity is hardly com- 
menced. Such are the effects of a disorderly waste of time, 
through not attending to its value. Everything in the life of 
such persons is misplaced. Nothing is performed aright, from 
not being 2 performed in due season. 

8. But he who is orderly in the distribution of his time, takes 
the proper method of escaping those manifold evils. He is justly 
said to redeem the time. By proper management, he prolongs it. 
He lives much in little space ; more in a few years than others 
do in many. He can live to God and his own soul, and at the 
same time attend to all the lawful interests of the present world. 
He looks back on the past, and provides for the future. 

9. He catches and arrests the hours as they fly. They are 
marked down for useful purposes, and their memory remains. 
Whereas those hours fleet by the man of confusion like a 
shadow. His days and years are either blanks, of which he has 
no remembrance, or they are filled up with so confused and 
irregular a 3 succession of unfinished transactions, that though 
he remembers he has been busy, yet he can give no account 
of the business which has employed him. — Blair* 

EXERCISE VII. 
249. On the Pleasure of Acquiring Knowledge. 

1. In every period of life, the acquisition of knowledge is one 
of the most pleasing employments of the human mind. But in 
youth, there are circumstances which make it productive of 
higher enjoyment. It 4 is then that everything has the charm 
of novelty, that curiosity and fancy are awake, and that the 
heart swells with the anticipations of future eminence and utility. 
Even in those lower branches of instruction which we call mere 



A.&P. Gr.-i4£7. *819. *727. 4 246.1. 



EXERCISES IN PROSE. 139 

accomplishments 1 (83. 1), there is something always pleasing 
to the young in their acquisition.* 

2. They seem to become 2 every well-educated person; they 
adorn, if they do not dignify humanity; and what is far more.f 
while they give an elegant employment to hours of leisure and 
relaxation, they afford a means 3 of contributing to the purity and 
innocence of domestic life. But in the acquisition of knowledge 
of the higher kind, — in the hours when the young gradually be- 
gin the study of the laws of nature, and of the faculties of the 
human mind, or of the magnificent revelations of the Gospel, — 
there 4 is a pleasure of a sublimer nature. 

3. The cloud, which in their infant years seemed to cover na- 
ture from their view, begins gradually to resolve. The world in 
which they are placed, opens with all its wonders upon their eye ; 
their powers of attention and observation seem to expand with 
the scene before them ; and while they see, for the first time, the 
immensity of the universe of God, and mark the majestic sim- 
plicity of those laws by which its operations are conducted, they 
feel as if they were awakened to a higher species of being, and 
admitted into nearer intercourse with the Author of Nature. 

4. It is this period, accordingly, more than all others, that 
determines our hopes or fears of the future fate of the young. 
To feel no joy in such pursuits, — to listen carelessly to the voice 
which brings such magnificent instruction, — to see the veil raised 
which conceals the counsels of the Deity, and to show no emo- 
tion at the discovery, — are 5 symptoms of a weak and torpid 
spirit — of a mind unworthy of the advantages it possesses, and 
fitted only for the humility of sensual and ignoble pleasure. 

5. Of those, on the contrary, who distinguish themselves by 
the love of knowledge-, — who follow with ardor the career that 
is open to them, — we are apt to form the most honorable pres- 
ages. It is the character which is natural to youth, and which, 

* Re-construct this sentence. 

f Apposition with clause " they afford," etc. 
A. &P. Gv.—i810. 2 021. *159.2. ±529. $778. 
C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 61, Sp. R. 5. 2 45. 4 59, r. 2. 



140 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

therefore, promises well of their maturity. We foresee for them, 
at least, a life of pure and virtuous enjoyment; and we are will- 
ing to anticipate no common share of future usefulness and 
splendor. 

6. In the second place, the pursuits of knowledge lead not 
only to happiness, but to honor. " Length of days is in her right 
hand, and in her left are riches and honor." It l is honorable to 
excel even in the most trifling species of knowledge — in those 
which can amuse only the passing hour. It is more honorable 
to excel in those different branches of science, which are con- 
nected with the liberal professions of life, and which tend so 
much to the dignity and well-being of humanity. 

7. It is 2 the means of raising the most obscure to esteem and 
attention ; it opens to the just ambition of youth some of the 
most distinguished and respected situations in society ; and it 
places them there, with the consoling reflection,* that it is to 
their own industry and labor, in the providence of God, that they 
are alone indebted for them. But to excel in the higher attain- 
ments of knowledge, — to be distinguished in those greater pur- 
suits which have commanded the attention and exhausted the 
abilities of the wise in every former age, — is,f perhaps, of all 
the distinctions of human understanding, the most honorable and 
grateful. 

8. When we look back upon the great men who have gone 
before us in every path of glory, we feel our eye turned from 
the career of war and of ambition, and involuntarily rest % upon 
those who have displayed the great truths of religion, — who 
have investigated the laws of social welfare, or extended the 
sphere of human knowledge. These are honors, we feel, which 
have been gained without a crime, and which can be enjoyed 
without remorse. They are honors, also, which can never die, 
— which can shed luster even upon the humblest head, — and to 
which the young of every succeeding age will look up, as their 
brightest incentive to the pursuit of virtuous fame. 

* In apposition with " reflection." f Why is this verb singular? 

X What rule is violated here ? 

A. & P. Gr. — *246. 4. *246. 1. 



EXERCISES IN PROSE. 141 



EXERCISE VIII. 
250. The Uses of Knowledge. 

1. The first end to which all wisdom or knowledge ought to 
be employed, is, to illustrate the wisdom or goodness of the 
Father of Nature. Every science that is cultivated by men 
leads naturally to religious thought — * from the study of the 
plant that grows beneath our feet, to that of the host of heaven 
above us, which perform their stated revolutions in majestic 
silence, amid the expanse of infinity. When, in the youth of 
Moses, "the Lord appeared to him in Horeb," a voice was 
heard, saying, " Draw not nigh hither : put off thy shoes from 
off thy feet; for the place whereon thou standest is holy 
ground." 

2. It is with such reverential awe that every great or elevated 
mind will approach the study of nature, and with such feelings 
of adoration and gratitude that he will receive the illumination 
that gradually opens upon his soul. It is not the lifeless mass 
of matter, he will then feel,f that he is examining; it is the 
mighty machine of Eternal Wisdom, — the workmanship of Him 
" in whom everything lives, and moves, and has its being." 

3. Under an aspect of this kind, it is impossible to pursue 
knowledge without mingling 1 with it the most elevated senti- 
ments of devotion ; it is impossible to perceive the laws of na- 
ture, without perceiving, at the same time, the presence and the 
providence of the Lawgiver ; and thus it is that, in every age, 
the evidences of religion have advanced with the progress of 
true philosophy ; and that science, in erecting a monument to 
herself, has at the same time erected an altar to the Deity. 

4. The knowledge of nature is not exhausted. There are 
many great discoveries yet awaiting the labors of science ; and 
with them there 2 are also awaiting to humanity many additional 
proofs of the wisdom and benevolence " of Him that made us." 

* What does this phrase limit ? f What is the object of " feel " i 

A. &P. Gr. — 1819. 2 529. 



142 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

To the hope of these great discoveries, few, indeed, can pretend; 
yet let it be ever remembered, that he who can trace any one 
new fact, or can exemplify any one new instance of divine wis- 
dom or benevolence in the system of nature, has not lived in 
vain, — that he has added to the sum of human knowledge, — 
and, what is far more, that he has added to the evidence of those 
greater truths, upon which the happiness of time and eternity 
depends. 

5. The second great end to which all knowledge ought to be 
employed, is the welfare of humanity. Every science is the 
foundation of some art beneficial to men ; and while the study 
of it leads us to see the beneficence of the laws of nature, it calls 
upon us also to follow the great end of the Father of Nature, in 
their employment and application. I need not say what a field 
is thus opened to the benevolence of knowledge : I need not tell 
you that in every department of learning there is good to be 
done 1 to mankind; I need not remind you, that the age in which 
we live has given us 2 the noblest examples of this kind, and that 
science now finds its highest glory in improving the condition, 
or in allaying the miseries of humanity. 

6. But there is one thing of which it is proper ever to remind 
you, — because the modesty of knowledge often leads us 3 to forget 
it, — and that is, the power of scientific benevolence is far greater 
than that of all others to the welfare of society.* The benevolence 
of the opulent, however eminent it may be, perishes with them- 
selves. The benevolence even of sovereigns is limited to the 
narrow boundary of human life, and not unfrequently is suc- 
ceeded by different and discordant counsels. But the benevo- 
lence of knowledge is of a kind as extensive as the race of man, 
and as permanent as the existence of society. 

7. He, in whatever situation he may be, who in the study of 
science has discovered a new means of alleviating pain, or of 
remedying disease, — who has described a wiser method of 4 pre- 

* What is the antecedent of il to " ? Improve this sentence. 
A. &P. Gr. — 1865. 2823.2. *872. *819. 
C.S.Gr.—i Lesson 66. 262, Obs. 2. 300 } r, 3. 



EXERCISES IN PROSE. 143 

venting poverty, or of shielding misfortune, — who has suggested 
additional means of increasing or improving the beneficent pro- 
ductions of nature, — has left a memorial of himself which can 
never be forgotten, — which will communicate happiness to ages 
yet unborn, — and which, in the emphatic language of Scripture, 
renders him a " fellow- worker " with God himself, in the im- 
provement of His Creation. 

8. The third * great end of all knowledge is the improvement 
and exaltation of our own minds. It was the voice of the apos- 
tle, — " What manner of men ought ye to be, to whom the truths 
of the Gospel have come ? " — It * is the voice of nature also, — 
" What manner of men ought ye to be, to whom the treasures 
of wisdom are opened?" Of all the spectacles, indeed, which 
life can offer us, there is none more painful, or unnatural, than 
that of the union of vice with knowledge. It counteracts the 
great designs of God in the distribution of wisdom; and it 
assimilates men, not to the usual character of human frailty, 
but to those dark and malignant spirits who fell from heaven, 
and who excel in knowledge only that they may employ it in 
malevolence. 

9. To the wise and virtuous man, on the contrary, — to him 
whose moral attainments have kept pace with his intellectual, 
and who has employed the great talent, with which he is intrusted, 
to the glory of God, and to the good of humanity , — is presented 
the sublimest prospect that mortality can know. "In my 
Father's house," says our Savior, "are many mansions,"-— 
mansions, we may dare interpret, 2 fitted to the different vir- 
tues that life has acquired, and to the uses to which they have 
been applied. 

* Prepare and write out an analytical outline of the three heads under 
which this subject is presented, after the model from Blair, page 192. 
Recast such sentences as are involved or obscure. Break up into 
shorter sentences, and make such changes in phraseology as this will 
involve. 

A. &P. Gr.— 1£46. 2. *877. 

C. S. Gr. — 2 Lesson QQ, R. 5. , 



144 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

EXERCISE IX. 

251. Character of Washington. 

1. The best evidence of reputation is a man's whole life. We 
have now, alas ! all Washington's before us. There has scarcely 
appeared a really great man whose character has been more ad- 
mired in his lifetime, or less correctly understood by his admirers. 
When it is comprehended, it is no easy task to delineate its ex- 
cellences in such a manner as to give to the portrait both interest 
and resemblance ; for it l requires thought and study to under- 
stand the true ground of the superiority of his character, over * 
many others whom he resembled in the principles of action, and 
even in the manner of acting. 

2. But perhaps he excels all the great men that ever lived in 
the steadiness of his adherence to his maxims of life, and in the 
conformity of all his conduct to the same maxims. These max- 
ims, though wise, were yet not so remarkable for their wisdom 
as for their authority over his life ; for if there were any errors 
in his judgment, we know of no blemishes in his virtue. He 
was the patriot without reproach; he loved his country well 
enough to hold his success in serving it as (83* 2 (a)) an am- 
ple recompense. 2 

3. Thus far self-love and love of country coincided (53. 2, 
Note) ; but when his country needed sacrifices that no other man 
could, or perhaps would, be willing to make, he did not even hes- 
itate. This was virtue in its most exalted character. More than 
once he put his fame at hazard when he had reason to think 3 it 
would be sacrificed, at least in this age.f 

4. It is no less difficult to speak of his talents. They were 
adapted to lead, without dazzling mankind; and to draw forth 
and employ the talents of others, without being misled by them. 

* To that of many others. 

f This phrase is a little obscure in its connection. Recast the sentence, 
so as to bring out clearly the obvious meaning. 

A. &P. Gr. — ^246. 4. *674. 5 647. 

C.S.Gr. — i Lesson 66. 



EXERCISES IN PROSE. 145 

In this he was certainly superior, that he neither mistook nor 
misapplied his own. His great modesty and reserve would have 
concealed them, if great occasions had not called them forth ; 
and then, as he never spoke from the affectation to shine, 1 nor 
acted from any sinister motives, it is from their effects only that 
we are to judge of their greatness and extent. 

5. His prudence was consummate, and seemed to take the 
direction of his powers and passions ; for, as a soldier, he was 
more solicitous to avoid mistakes that would be fatal, than to 
perform exploits that were brilliant; and, as a statesman,* to ad- 
here to just principles, however old, than to pursue novelties ; 
and therefore, in both characters, his qualities were singularly 
adapted to the interest, and were tried in the greatest perils, of 
the country. His habits of inquiry were so far remarkable that 
he was never satisfied with investigating, nor desisted from it so 
long as he had less [light] than all the light {153. 4) he could 
obtain upon a subject; and then he made his decision without 
bias. 

6. If he loved fame, he never made improper compliances for 
what is called popularity. The fame he enjoyed is of the kind 
that will last forever ; yet it was rather the effect, than the mo- 
tive of his conduct. Some future Plutarch will search for a 
parallel to his character. Epaminondas is, perhaps, the bright- 
est name of all antiquity. Our Washington resembles him in 
the purity and ardor of his patriotism ; and, like 2 him, he first 
exalted the glory of his country. — Ames. 

* Supply " he was more solicitous." 

A. &P. Gr. — ^ 865. ^823.3. 
■ C.S.Gr. — i Lesson 66. 

13 



146 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 



SELECTIONS EST POETRY. 

252. In poetry the style is usually much more inverted than 
in prose. Among the most common inversions are the follow- 
ing:— 

1. The adjective following its noun; as, — 

" Love and his sister fair, the Soul." 

2. The verb preceding its subject; as, — 

" Hence chiefly rise the storms of life." 

3. The object preceding the verb on which it depends ; as, — 

" Soft peace she brings wherever she arrives." 

4. The adverb preceding subject and verb; as, — 

" Down comes a deluge of sonorous hail." 
" Slowly and sadly we laid him down." 

5. The attribute preceding the verb, in which case the subject 
generally follows it ; as, — 

" Sweet was the sound when oft at evening's close." 

253. In composite sentences omissions of nouns and verbs 
are frequent, when they can be readily supplied from the sense. 

254:. Adjective forms are often used for adverbs, and the 
adjective as factitive object (83. 1) is more common than in 
prose. This last should not be mistaken for the former ; as, — 

Adverb. " now the leaf 

Incessant rustles from the mournful grove." 

Adjective. " — — the bright effulgent sun 

Looks g&yly fierce through all the dazzling air." 

Transposition. 

255. It will often be of value, before analyzing or parsing a 
sentence, to reduce it to the prose order, and to supply ellipses, 
that the grammatical dependence and construction of the several 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 147 

parts, as well as the meaning of the author, may be more clearly 
perceived. 

Examples. 

1. "Love, and his sister fair, the Soul, 
Twin-born, from heaven together came." 

Love and his fair sister, the Soul, twin-born, came from heaven. 

2. " Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, 
A youth to fortune and to fame unknown." 

A youth unknown to fortune and to fame here rests his head 
upon the lap of earth. 

3. " Who lives to nature rarely can be poor; 
Who lives to fancy never can be rich." 

[He] who lives [according] to nature can rarely be poor; 
[he] who lives [according] to fancy can never be rich. 

*** It will also be a profitable exercise to point out the different 
kinds of verse, 1 to scan the lines by dividing each into its appro- 
priate feet, and mention such figures 2 of speech as may occur. 



EXERCISE I. 
256. Select Sentences. 

Charity. 

1. Soft peace she brings wherever she arrives ; 
She builds our quiet as she forms our lives, 
Lays the rough path of peevish nature even, 3 
And opens in each breast a little heaven. 

Love of Praise. 

2. The love of praise, howe'er concealed by art, 
Reigns more or less and glows in every heart ; 
The proud to gain it, toils on toils endure, 
The modest shun it but to make 4 it sure. 

A. & P. Gr. — 1 1059, et seq. 2 1039. *547. 4 882, 
C. S. Gr. 3 Lesson 66, Sp. R. 6. 



148 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Beauty of Expression. 

3. Thy words had such a melting flow, 

And spoke of truth so sweetly well, 
They dropped like heaven's serenest snow, 
And all was brightness where they fell. 

Man and Woman. 

4. Man is the rugged lofty pine, 1 

That frowns o'er many a wave-beat shore; 
Woman's the slender, graceful vine, 
Whose curling tendrils round it twine, 

And deck its rough bark sweetly o'er. 

Virtuous Activity. 

5. Seize, mortals 1 seize the transient hour; 

Improve each moment as it flies : 
Life's a short summer — man a flower ; 
He dies — alas ! — how soon he dies ! 

The Source of Happiness. 

6. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 

Lie in three words — health, peace, and competence. 
But health consists with temperance alone ; 
And peace, O virtue ! peace is all thy own. 2 

Bliss of Celestial Origin. 

7. Restless mortals toil for naught ; 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought ; 
Bliss, a native of the sky, 
Never wanders. Mortals, try ; 
There you can not seek in vain ; 
For to seek 3 her is to gain. 

A. & P. Gr. — 1104 0.3. *252. $869. 
C. S. Gr. — 3 Lesson Q6, Sp. R. 1. 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 149 

The Passions. 

8. The Passions are a numerous crowd, 
Imperious, positive, and loud. 
Curb these licentious sons of strife ; 
Hence chiefly rise the storms of life ; 
If they grow mutinous, and rave, 
They are thy masters, thou their slave. 

Epitaph. 

9. How loved, how valued once, avails * thee not : 
To whom f related, or by whom begot; 

A heap of dust alone remains of thee ; 
'Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be. 

DUM VlVIMUS VlVAMUS. 

10. " Live while J (127) you live," the epicure would say, J 
" And seize the pleasures of the present day." 

" Live while you live," the sacred preacher cries, 
" And give to God each moment as it flies." 
Lord ! in my view, let both united be ; 
I live in pleasure when 1 (127) I live to thee! 

Confidence in Divine Protection. 

11. Man may trouble and distress me, — 

'Twill but drive me to thy breast ; 
Life with trials hard may press me, — 

Heaven will bring me sweeter rest. 
O, 'tis 2 not in grief to harm me, 

While thy love is left to me ; 
O, 'twere 3 not in joy to charm me 

Were that joy unmixed with Thee. 

* What " avails " ? f Supply "thou art." 

X What is the object of " say " ? 

A. & P. Gr. — 1 644. * 246. 4. s 490. 

C. S. Gr. — 1 Lesson 47. 

Vd* 



150 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 



EXERCISE II. 

257. Select Paragraphs. 

Music. 

1. Deep* as the murmurs of the falling floods, 
Sweet* as the warbles of the vocal woods : 
The listening passions hear, and sink, and rise, 
As the rich harmony or ! swells or dies ! 

The pulse of avarice forgets to move ; 
A purer rapture fills the breast of love ; 
Devotion lifts to heaven a holier eye, 
And bleeding Pity heaves a softer sigh. 

Spring.! 

2. From the moist meadow to the withered hill, 
Led by the breeze, the vivid verdure runs, 
And swells, and deepens ; to the cherished ey 
The hawthorn whitens ; and the juicy groves 
Put forth their buds, unfolding by degrees, 
Till the whole leafy forest stands displayed, 
In full luxuriance, to the sighing gales. 

Summer. 

3. The bright (254) effulgent sun, 
Rising direct, swift chases from the sky 

The short-lived twilight, and with ardent blaze 

Looks gayly fierce 2 through all the dazzling air : 

He mounts his throne ; but kind before him sends — 

Issuing from out the portals of the morn — 

The genial breeze, to mitigate his fire, 

And breathe refreshment on a fainting world. 

* What do " deep " and " sweet " limit ? 

t Arrange the members and elements of this sentence as shown in the 
models, pp. 56-64. 

A. &P. Gr.— H048.6. *685. 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 151 

Autumn. 

4. Now the leaf 
Incessant rustles from the mournful grove, 
Oft startling such as, studious, walk below, 
And slowly circles through the waving air. 
Fled is the blasted verdure of the fields, 
And, shrunk into their beds, the flowery race 
Their sunny robes resign. E'en what remained 
Of stronger fruits falls from the naked tree ; 

And woods, fields, gardens, orchards, all around — 
The desolated prospect 1 thrills the soul. 

Winter. 

5. The horizontal sun, 
Broad 2 o'er the south, hangs at his utmost noon, 
And, ineffectual, strikes the gelid cliff: 

His azure gloss the mountain still maintains, 
Nor feels the feeble touch. Perhaps the vale 
Relents a while to the reflected ray ; 
Or from the forest falls the clustered snow, 
Myriads 1 of gems, that in the waving gleam, 
Gay twinkle as they scatter. Thick around 
Thunders the sport of those, who, with the gun 
And dog impatient, bounding at the shot, 
Worse than the Season desolate the fields. 

Sunrise. 

6. But yonder comes the powerful king of day, 
Rejoicing in the east. The lessening cloud, 
The kindling azure, and the mountain's brow, 
Illumed with fluid gold, his near approach 
Betoken glad. Lo, now, apparent all, 
Aslant the dew-bright earth, and colored air, 
He looks in boundless majesty abroad, 

A. & P. Gr. — 1 667. 2 685. 
C.S. Gr. — i Lesson 51. 



152 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

And sheds the shining day, that, burnished, plays 

On rocks, and hills, and towers, and wandering streams, 

High gleaming from afar. 

Reputation. 

7. Good name in man and woman 

Is the immediate jewel of their souls : 

Who l steals my purse steals trash ; 'tis something, nothing ; 

'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands ; 

But he that filches from me my good name, 

Robs me of that which not enriches him, 

And makes me poor indeed. 

Evening Sounds. 

8. Sweet was the sound, when oft, at evening's close, 
Up yonder hill the village murmur rose ; 

There as I passed with careless step and slow, 

The mingling notes came softened from below; 

The swain responsive as the milkmaid sung, 

The sober herd that lowed to meet their young, 

The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool, 

The playful children just let loose from school, 

The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wind, 

And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind, — 

These all in soft confusion sought the shade, 

And filled each pause the nightingale had made. 

Morning Sounds. 

9. Up springs the lark, 
Shrill-voiced, and loud, the messenger of morn ; 
Ere yet the shadows fly, he mounted sings 
Amid the dawning clouds,- and from their haunts 
Calls up the tuneful nation. 

The blackbird whistles from the thorny brake ; 
The mellow bullfinch answers from the grove ; 

A. &P. Gr. — 1 758.. 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 153 

Nor are the linnets, o'er the flowering furze 
Poured out profusely, silent. Joined to these, 
Innumerous * songsters, in the freshening shade 
Of new-sprung leaves, their modulation mix 
Mellifluous. The jay, the rook, the daw, 
And each harsh pipe, discordant heard alone, 
Aid the full concert ; while the stock-dove breathes 
A melancholy murmur through the whole. 

EXERCISE III. 

258. The Union. 
Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State ! 
Sail on, O Union, strong and great ! 
Humanity with all its fears, 
With all the hopes of future years, 
Is hanging breathless 2 on thy fate ! 
We know what Master laid thy keel, 3 
What Workmen wrought thy ribs of steel, 
Who made each mast, and sail, and rope, 
What anvils rang, what hammers beat, 
In what a 4 forge and what a heat 
Were shaped the anchors of thy hope ! 
Eear not each sudden sound and shock; 
'Tis of the wave and not the rock ; 
'Tis but the flapping of the sail, 
And not a rent made by the gale ! 
In spite of rock and tempest's roar, 
In spite of false lights on the shore, 
Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea ! 
Our hearts, our hopes, are all with thee ; 
Our hearts, our hopes, our prayers, our tears, 
Our faith triumphant o'er our fears, 
Are all with thee, — are all with thee ! — Longfellow. 



A. & P. Gr. — 1 1048. 1. 2 ?05. 3. s 284. * 727, 
C. S. Gr. — 3 Page 32, top. 



154 ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 

EXERCISE IV. 

259. Early Recollections. 

Be 1 it weakness, it deserves some praise, — 

We love the play-place of our early days ; 

The scene is touching, and the heart is stone 

That feels not at the sight, and feels at none.* 

The wall f on which we tried our graving skill, 

The very name we carved subsisting still ; 

The bench on which we^sat while deep employed, 

Though mangled, hacked, and hewed, not yet destroyed ; 

The little ones, unbuttoned, glowing hot, 

Playing our games, and on the very spot, 

As happy as we once, to 2 kneel and draw 

The chalky ring, and knuckle down at taw, J 

To pitch the ball into the grounded hat, 

Or drive it devious with a dexterous pat ; 

The pleasing spectacle at once excites 

Such recollection of our own delights, 

That, viewing it, we seem almost t' obtain 

Our innocent, sweet, simple years again. 

This fond attachment to the well-known place, 

Whence first we started into life's long race, 

Maintains its hold with such unfailing sway, § 

We feel it e'en in age, and at our latest day. — Cowper. 

EXERCISE V. 
260. Flowers the Gift of Divine Benignity. 

Yes, there shall still be joy 
Where God hath poured forth beauty ; and the voice 
Of human love shall still be heard in praise 

* It would feel at none. f Supply " we think of." 

% i. e. marbles. § Supply " that." 

A. P. & Gr. — 1 390. 2 865. 

C. S. Gr.— 2 Lesson 66. 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 155 

Over his glorious gifts. Father, Lord ! 

The All-beneficent ! I bless thy name, 

That * thou hast mantled the green earth with flowers, 

Linking our hearts to nature ! By the love 

Of their wild blossoms, our young footsteps first 

Into her deep recesses are beguiled — 

Her minster cells, — dark glen and forest bower : 

Where, thrilling with its earliest sense of thee, 

Amidst the low, religious whisperings, 

And shivery leaf-sounds of the solitude, 

The spirit wakes to 1 worship, and is made 

Thy living temple. By the breath of flowers 

Thou callest us from city throngs and cares 

Back to the woods, the birds, the mountain streams, 

That sing of thee ! — back to free childhood's heart, 

Fresh with the dews of tenderness ! — Thou bidd'st 

The lilies of the field with placid smile 

Reprove man's feverish heartstrings, and infuse 

Through his worn soul a more unworldly life, 

With their soft, holy breath. Thou hast not left 

His purer nature, with its fine desires, 

Uncared f for 2 in this universe of thine ! — 

The glowing rose attests it, the beloved 

Of poet hearts, — touched by their fervent dreams 

With spiritual light, and made a source 

Of heaven-ascending thoughts. E'en to faint age 

Thou lend'st the vernal bliss : The old man's eye 

Falls on the kindling blossoms, and his soul 

Remembers youth and love, and hopefully 

Turns unto thee, who call'st earth's buried germs 

From dust to splendor ; as the mortal seed 

Shall, at thy summons, from the grave spring up 

To 3 put on glory, — to be girt with power, 



*==«« because." t Uncared for = not cared for. 

A.&P. Gr.-iSSS. 2550; 375.1. *882. 
C. S. Gr. — iLesson66, Sp. R. 6. U6, Obs. 3. *6Q, Sp. R. 6. 



156 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

And filled with immortality. Receive 
Thanks, blessings, love, for these thy lavish boons, 
And, most of all, their * heavenward influences, 
O Thou that gav'st us flowers ! — Hemans. 

EXERCISE VI. 

261. To the Ocean* 

Hail, glorious Ocean ! In thy calm repose 
Majestic like a king. The emerald isles • 

Sleep on thy breast, as though with matron care 
Thou in a robe of light didst cradle them, 
Hushing the gales that might disturb their rest. 
Those chastened waves 2 that in rotation throng 
To kiss the chain of sand, methinks 3 they seem 
Like pensive teachers (121. 2), or like eloquent types 
Of the brief tenure of terrestrial joy. 
Though roused to sudden anger, thou dost change 
Thy countenance, and, armed with terror, toss 
Man's floating castles to the fiery skies, 
Yet still thou art his friend. Thy mystic spell 
Looseneth the tie of kindred, lures 4 his feet 
From earth's green pastures to the slippery shrouds, 
Weans his bold spirit from the parent hearth, 
Till by the rough and perilous baptism bronzed, 
Thou art his priest, his home. 

With toil and change 
Creation labors. Streams their beds forsake — 
Strong mountains molder — the eternal hills 
Leap from their firm foundations — planets fall ; 
But age thy fearful forehead furroweth not. 
Earth's bosom bleeds beneath her warring sons, — 
The tempest scathes her with a foot of\ flame, 

* Translate this piece into prose, enlarging where necessary to bring 
out the sense. 

A. & P. Gr. — 1 823. 1. 2 77s. 3 521. * 956. 
C. S. Gr. — 2 Lesson 57 , Sp. R. 4. s p a ge 74, top. 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 157 

And her bloom withers ; but what eye may trace 

Where haughtiest navies poured their hostile wrath 

Into thy breast, or the storm-spirit dashed 

Thy salt tears to the sky ? What hand hath reared 

Upon thy ever-heaving pedestal 

One monumental fane to those who sleep 

Within thy cloistered chambers ? Myriads there, 

Wrapped in the tangled sea-fan's gorgeous shroud, 

On thy pearl pavements find their sepulchre. 

Earth strictly questioned* for those absent ones — 

Her beautiful, her brave, her innocent ; 

But thou, in thy unyielding silence, gave 

No tidings of them, and, despotic, bade 

Beauty and death, like rival kings, divide 

Thy secret realm. 

Mysterious deep, farewell! 
I turn from thy companionship. But lo ! 
Thy voice doth follow me. 'Midst lonely bower, 
Or twilight dream, or wakeful couch, I hear 
That solemn and reverberated hymn 
From thy deep organ, which doth speak God's praise 
In thunder, night and day. 

Still by my side 
Even as a dim l seen spirit deign to walk, 
Prompter of holy thoughts and type of Him, 
Sleepless, immutable, omnipotent. — Sigourney. 

EXERCISE VII. 
262. Description of a Storm.f 

Behold, 2 slow-settling o'er the lurid grove, 
Unusual darkness broods, and, growing, gains 

* Questioned = inquired. 

f Transpose before parsing. Write out a literal and also an enlarged 
translation in prose. 

A.&P. Gr. — 11044. 4. *558. 
C. S. Gr. — 1 Lesson 69, Sp. K. 1. 

14 



158 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

The full possession of the sky, surcharged 

With wrathful vapor, from the secret beds, 

Where sleep the mineral generations, drawn {156. 4). 

Thence niter, sulphur, and the fiery spume 

Of fat bitumen, steaming on the day, 

With various-tinctured trains of latent flame, 

Pollute the sky, and in yon l baleful cloud 

A reddening gloom, 2 a magazine of fate, 

Ferment ; till, by the touch ethereal roused, 

The dash of clouds, or irritating war 

Of fighting winds, while all is calm below 

They furious 3 spring. A boding silence reigns, 

Dread through the dun expanse ; save 4 the dull sound 

That from the mountain, previous to the storm^ 

Rolls o'er the muttering earth, disturbs the flood, 

And shakes the forest-leaf without a breath. 

Prone, to the lowest vale the aerial tribes 

Descend : the tempest-loving raven scarce 

Dares wing the dubious dusk. In rueful gaze 

The cattle stand, and on the scowling heavens 

Cast a deploring eye, by man forsook, 

Who to the crowded cottage hies him 5 fast, 

Or seeks the shelter of the downward cave. 

'Tis listening fear and dumb amazement all, 

When to the startled eye the sudden glance 

Appears far south, eruptive through the cloud ; 

And following slower, in explosion vast 

The Thunder raises his tremendous voice. 

At first, heard 6 solemn o'er the verge of heaven, 

The tempest growls ; but as it nearer comes, 

And rolls its awful burden on the wind, 

The lightnings 7 flash a larger curve, and more 

The noise astounds : till overhead a sheet 

A. &P. Gr. — 1503. 2368. 21044.4;, *547. $1048.1. *705. 3. 
11048.7. 

C. S. Gr. — 2 Lesson 51. 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 159 

Of livid flame discloses wide, then shuts 
And opens wider, shuts and opens still 
Expansive, wrapping ether in a blaze. 
Follows the loosened aggravated roar, 
Enlarging, deepening, mingling, peal on peal 
Crushed horrible, convulsing heaven and earth. 

Down comes a deluge of sonorous hail, 
Or prone-descending rain. Wide rent, the clouds 
Pour a whole flood ; and yet, its flame 1 unquenched, 
The unconquerable lightning struggles through, 
Hugged and fierce, or in red whirling balls, 
And fires the mountains with redoubled rage. 
Black from the stroke, above, the smouldering pine 
Stands a sad shattered trunk; and, stretched below, 
A lifeless group 2 the blasted cattle lie : 
Here the soft flocks, with that same harmless look 
They wore * alive, and ruminating still 
In fancy's eye ; and there the frowning bull, 
And ox half raised. Struck on the castled cliff, 
The venerable tower and spiry fane 
Resign their aged pride. The gloomy woods 
Start at the flash, and from their deep recess, 
Wide flaming out, their trembling inmates shake. 

— Thomson, 

EXERCISE VIII. 
263. Ode to Peace. 

Come, peace of mind, delightful guest ! 
Return, and make thy downy nest 

Once more in this sad heart ; 
Nor 3 riches I, nor power pursue, 
Nor hold forbidden joys in view ; 

We therefore need not part. 



* Supply " when they were." 
A. & P. Gr.—i 771. *796. a 1048. 6. 
C.S.Gr.— 2 Lesson 66. 



160 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Where wilt thou dwell, if not with me, 
From avarice and ambition free, 

And pleasure's fatal wiles ; 
For whom, alas ! dost thou prepare 
The sweets that I was wont* to share, 

The banquet of thy smiles ? 

The great, 1 the gay, shall they partake 
The heaven that thou alone canst make ? 

And wilt thou quit the stream, 
That murmurs through the dewy mead, 
The grove and the sequestered shade, 

To be 2 a guest with them ? 

For thee I panted, thee I prized, 
For thee I gladly sacrificed 

Whate'er I loved before ; 
And shall I see thee start away, 
And helpless, hopeless, hear thee say — 

Farewell, we meet no more? — Cowper. 



EXERCISE IX. 

264. The Buins. 

I've seen, in twilight's pensive hour, 

The moss-clad dome, the moldering tower, 

In awful ruin stand ; 3 — 
That dome where grateful voices sung, 
That tower, whose chiming music rung 

Majestically grand ! 

I've seen, 'mid sculptured pride, the tomb 
Where heroes slept in silent gloom, 

* li Wont," a part, of an obsolete verb. See Webster's Dictionary. 
A. &P. Gr.— 1775. 2 882. *877. 
C.S. Gr. — 1 Lesson 57, Sp. K. 4. 2Q6, Sp. R. 6. 3^6, Sp.R.5. 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 161 

Unconscious of their fame ; — 
Those who, with laureled honors crowned 
Among their foes spread terror round, 

And gained — an empty name ! 

I've seen, in death's dark palace laid, 
The ruins of a beauteous maid, 

Cadaverous and pale ! 
That maiden who, while life remained,. 
O'er rival charms in triumph reigned, 

The mistress * of the vale. 

I've seen, where dungeon's damps abide, 
A youth, admired in manhood's pride, 

In morbid fancy rave ; 
He 2 who, in reason's happier day, 
Was virtuous, witty, nobly gay, 

Learned, generous, and brave. 

Nor dome, nor tower in twilight shade, 
Nor hero fallen, nor beauteous maid, 

To ruin all consigned — 
Can 3 with such pathos touch my breast, 
As (on the maniac's form impressed) 

The ruins of the mind ! 4 — Osborne. 

EXERCISE X. 
265. Slimmer Morning. 

Sweet 5 the beams of rosy morning, 

Silent chasing gloom away, 
Lovely tints the sky adorning, 

Harbingers of opening day ! 

A. &P. Gr. — 1797. *1048. 4 ("him"). *785. ±355. * 1048.2. 

C. S. Gr. — 3 Lesson 59, Sp. R. 3. 

14* 



162 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

See the king of day appearing, 

Slow his progress and serene ; 
Soon I feel the influence cheering 

Of this grand and lovely scene 2 

Lovely songsters join their voices, 

Harmony the groves pervades ; 
All in nature now rejoices, 

Light and joy succeed the shades ; 
Stars withdraw, and man arises, 

To his labor cheerful goes ; 
Day's returning blessings prizes, 

And in praise his pleasure shows. 

May each morn, that in succession 

Adds new mercies ever flowing, 
Leave a strong and deep impression 

Of my debt, forever growing ; 
Debt 1 of love, ah! how increasing! 

Days and years fresh blessings bring, 
But my praise shall flow unceasing, 

And my Maker's love I'll sing ! 

EXERCISE XI. 
266* The Land of Dreams. 

A mighty realm is the Land of Dreams, 

With steeps that hang in the twilight sky, * 

And weltering oceans and trailing streams, 
That gleam where the dusky valleys lie. 

But over its shadowy border flow 

Sweet rays from the world of endless morn, 

And the nearer mountains catch the glow, 
And flowers in the nearer fields are born. 

A. & P. Gr. — i 774. 

C. S. Gr — i Lesson 57, Sp. R. 3. 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 163 

The souls of the happy dead repair, 

From their bowers of light, to that bordering land, 
And walk in the fainter glory there, 

With the souls of the living, hand in hand. 

One calm, sweet smile, 1 in that shadowy sphere, 
From eyes that open on earth no more, — 

One warning word l from a voice once dear, — 
How they rise in the memory o'er and o'er ! 

Far off from those hills that shine with day, 
And fields that bloom in the heavenly gales, 

The Land of Dreams goes stretching (156. 4) away 
To dimmer mountains and darker vales. 

There lie the chambers of guilty delight, 

There walk the specters of guilty fear, 
And soft, low voices, that float through the night, 

Are whispering sin in the helpless ear. 

Dear maid, in thy girlhood's opening flower, 
Scarce weaned from the love of childish play ! 

The tears on whose cheek are but the shower 
That freshens and blooms in early May ! — 

Thine eyes are closed, and over thy brow 
Pass thoughtful shadows and joyous gleams, 

And I know, by thy moving lips, that now 
Thy spirit strays in the Land of Dreams. 

Light-hearted maiden, oh, heed thy feet ! 

Keep where that beam of Paradise falls : 
And only wander where thou may'st meet 

The blessed ones from its shining walls. 

A. & P. Gr. — i 775. 

C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 57, Sp. R. 4. 



164 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

So shalt thou come from the Land of Dreams, 
With love and peace to this world of strife ; 

And the light that over that border streams 

Shall lie on the path of thy daily life. — Bryant. 

EXERCISE XII. 

267. The Mainbow. 

The evening was glorious, and light through the trees, 

Played in sunshine the rain-drops, the birds and the breeze : 

The landscape outstretching in loveliness lay 

On the lap of the year, in the beauty of May. 

Eor the bright queen of spring, as she passed down the vale, 

Left her robe on the trees, and her breath on the gale ; 

And the smile of her promise gave joy to the hours, 

And fresh in her footsteps sprang herbage and flowers. 

The sky, like a banner in sunset unrolled, 

O'er the west threw her splendor of azure and gold ; 

; But one cloud at a distance rose dense, and increased, 
Till its margin of black touched the zenith and east. 
"We gazed on these scenes, while around us they glowed, 

I When a vision of beauty appeared on the cloud ; 

J 'Twas not like the sun, as at midday we view, 

Nor the moon, that rolls lightly through starlight and blue : 

Like a spirit it came in the van of the storm, 

And the eye and the heart hailed its beautiful form ; 

For it looked not severe, like an angel of wrath, 

But its garments of brightness illumed its dark path. 

In the hues of its grandeur sublimely it stood, 

O'er the river, the village, the field, and the wood ; 

And river, field, village, and woodland grew bright, 

As conscious they gave and afforded delight. 

'Twas the bow of Omnipotence, bent in his hand, 
Whose grasp, at creation, the universe spanned ; 
'Twas the presence of God in a symbol sublime, 
His vow from the flood to the exile of time j — 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 165 

Not dreadful, as when in a whirlwind he pleads, 

When storms are his chariot, and lightning his steeds, — 

The black cloud of vengeance * his banner unfurled, 

And thunder * his voice to a guilt- stricken world, — 

In the breath of his presence, when thousands expire, 

And seas boil with fury, and rocks burn with fire, 

And the sword and the plague-spot with death strew the plain, 

And vultures and wolves are the graves of the slain : ^ 

Not such was that rainbow, that beautiful one, 
Whose arch was refraction, its key- stone, the sun ; 
l A pavilion it seemed with a deity graced, 
And justice and mercy met there and embraced. 
A while, and it sweetly bent over the gloom, 
Like love o'er a death-couch, or hope o'er the tomb ; 
Then left the dark scene, whence it slowly retired, 
As f love had just vanished, or hope had expired. 

I gazed not alone on that source of my song ; — 

To all who beheld it these verses belong ; 

Its presence to all was the path of the Lord ! 

Each full heart expanded, grew warm and adored. 

Like a visit, the converse of friends, or a day, 

That bow from my sight passed forever away; 

Like that visit, that converse, that day, to my heart, 

That bow from remembrance can never depart. 

'Tis a picture in memory, distinctly defined, 

With the strong and imperishing colors of mind; 

A part of my being beyond my control, 

Beheld on that cloud, and transcribed on my soul. — Campbell* 

EXERCISE XIII. 

268* Mope triumphant in Death. 

Unfading hope ! when life's last embers burn, 

When soul to soul and dust to dust return (53, 2, Note), 

* Supply " is." t Supply " if." 

A.&P. Gr. — 1 887 [to be]. 



166 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Heaven to thy charge resigns the awful hour, 
O, then thy kingdom come ! immortal Power! 
What though each spark of earth-born rapture fly* 
The quivering lip, pale cheek, and closing eye ! 
Bright to the soul thy seraph hands convey 
The morning dream of life's eternal day : — 
Then, then, the triumph of the trance begin ! 
And all thy Phoenix spirit burns within. 

O, deep-enchanting prelude to repose, 

The dawn of bliss, the twilight of our woes — 

Yet half I hear the parting spirit sigh, 

It is a dread and awful thing to die ! 

Mysterious worlds, untraveled by the sun, 

Where Time's far- wandering tide has never run ! 

From your unfathomed shades, and viewless spheres, 

A warning comes, unheard by other ears : — 

'Tis Heaven's commanding trumpet long and loud, 
Like Sinai's thunder, pealing from the cloud ! 
While Nature hears with terror-mingled trust 
The shock that hurls her fabric to the dust ; 
And, like the trembling Hebrew when he trod 
The roaring waves, and called upon his God, 
With mortal terrors clouds immortal bliss, 
And shrieks, and hovers o'er the dark abyss ! 

Daughter of Faith, awake, arise, illume 
The dread unknown, the chaos of the tomb ! 
Melt and dispel, ye specter-doubts, that roll 
Cimmerian darkness on the parting soul ! 
Fly, like the moon-eyed herald of dismay, 
Chased on his night-steed by the star of day ! 
The strife is o'er — the pangs of Nature close, 
And life's last rapture triumphs o'er his woes. 

* Supply " from." 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 167 

Hark ! as the spirit eyes with eagle gaze 
The noon of Heaven, undazzled by the blaze, 
On heavenly winds that waft her to the sky, 
Float the sweet tones of star-born melody ; 
"Wild as that hallowed anthem sent to hail 
Bethlehem's shepherds in the lonely vale, 
When Jordan hushed his waves, and midnight still 
Watched on the holy towers of Zion's hill. 

Soul of the just ! companion of the dead, 
Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled? 
Back to thy heavenly source thy being goes, 
Swift as the comet wheels to l whence he rose ; 
Doomed on his airy path a while to burn, 
And doomed, like thee, to travel, and return — 
Hark ! from the world's exploding center driven, 
With sounds that shock the firmament of Heaven, 
Careers the fiery giant, fast and far, 
On bickering wheels, and adamantine car. 

From planet whirled 2 to planet more remote, 

He visits realms beyond the reach of thought ; 

But, wheeling homeward when his course is run, 

Curbs the red yoke, and mingles with the sun. — 

So hath the traveler of earth unfurled 

Her trembling wings, emerging from the world; 

And o'er the path by mortal never trod, 

Sprung to her source, the bosom of her God. — Campbell. 

4 
EXERCISE XIV. 

269. The Hermit. 

At the close of the day, when the hamlet is still, 
And mortals the sweets of forgetfulness prove ; 

When naught but the torrent 3 is heard on the hill, 
And naught but the nightingale's song 3 in the grove ; 



A. & P. Gr. — 1 824. Supply " the place." 2 050. s 818. 
C. S. Gr. — 2 Lesson 47. s 62, R. XI. 



168 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

'Twas thus by the cave of the mountain afar, 

While his harp rung symphonious, a hermit began; 

No more with himself or with nature at war, 

He thought as a sage,* though he felt as a man.* 

" Ah! why, all * abandoned to darkness and woe, 

Why, lone Philomela, that languishing fall ? 
For spring shall return, and a lover bestow, 

And sorrow no longer thy bosom inthrall. 2 
But if pity inspire thee, renew the sad lay ; 

Mourn, sweetest complainer ; man calls thee to mourn : 
O, soothe him whose pleasures like thine pass away : 

Pull quickly they pass — but they never return. 

" Now gliding remote, on the verge of the sky, 

The moon half extinguished her crescent displays ; 
But lately I marked, when majestic on high 

She shone, and the planets were lost in her blaze. 
Roll on, thou fair orb, and with gladness pursue 

The path that conducts thee to splendor again ; 
But man's faded glory what change shall renew ? 

Ah, fool ! to 3 exult in a glory so vain ! 

" 'Tis night, and the landscape is lovely no more : 

I mourn, but, ye woodlands, I mourn not for you ; 
For morn is approaching, your charms to restore, 4 

Perfumed with fresh fragrance, and glittering with dew. 
Nor yet for the ravage of winter I mourn ; 

Kind nature the embryo blossom will save ; 
But when shall spring visit the moldering urn ? 

O, when shall day dawn on the night of the grave ? 

" 'Twas thus by the glare of false science betrayed, 
That leads to bewilder, 4 and dazzles to blind ; 

My thoughts wont f to roam from shade onward to shade, 
Destruction 5 before me, and sorrow behind. 

* Supply " thinks " — " feels." f " Wont " = " were accustomed." 
A. & P. Gr. — 1 922. *958. * 885. *882. &771. 
C.S. Gr.— 2Lesson70, Obs. 5. 369, R. XVIII. *QQ, Sp. R. 6. 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 169 

* O pity, great Father of Light,' then I cried, 

'Thy creature who fain would not wander from thee; 

Lo, humbled in dust, I relinquish my pride ; 
From doubt and from darkness thou only canst free.' 

" And darkness and doubt are now flying away; 

No longer I roam in conjecture forlorn : 
So breaks on the traveler, faint and astray, 

The bright and the balmy effulgence of morn. 
See truth, love, and mercy, in triumph descending, 

And nature all glowing in Eden's first bloom ! 
On the cold cheek of Death smiles and roses are blending, 

And beauty immortal awakes from the tomb." — Beattie, 



EXERCISE XV. 

270. On Procrastination. 

Be wise to-day ; 'tis madness to defer : 

Next day the fatal precedent will plead ; 

Thus * on, till wisdom is pushed out of life. 

Procrastination is the thief of time ; 

Year after year it steals, till all are fled, 

And to the mercies of a moment leaves 

The vast concerns of an eternal scene. 

All promise is poor dilatory man ; 

Andf that through every stage. When young, indeed 

In full content we sometimes nobly rest, 

Unanxious for ourselves, and only wish, 

As duteous sons, our fathers were 1 more wise. 

At thirty, man suspects himself a 2 fool (83, 1) ; 

Knows it 3 at forty, and reforms his plans; 

At fifty, chides his infamous delay ; 

Pushes his prudent purpose to resolve ; 

In all the magnanimity of thought, 

* Supply " things will go." f Supply " he is." 

A. &P. Gr. — 1490. *887. * 246.1. 

15 



170 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Resolves, and re-resolves, then dies the same. 

And why ? Because he thinks himself immortal. 

All men think all men mortal but themselves ; 

Themselves,* when some alarming shock of fate 

Strikes through their wounded hearts the sudden dread ; 

But their hearts wounded, like the wounded air, 

Soon close ; where passed the shaft, no trace is found. 

As from the wing no scar the sky retains, 

The parted wave f no furrow from the keel ; 

So dies in human hearts the thought of death. 

Even with the tender tear which Nature sheds 

O'er those we love, we drop it J in their grave. — Young, 



EXERCISE XVI. 

271- The Moad to Happiness open to all Men. 

Oh Happiness ! our being's end and aim ! 

Good, pleasure, ease, content ! whate'er thy name : 

That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh, 

For which we bear to live, or dare to die ; 

Which still so near us, yet beyond us lies, 

O'erlooked, seen double, by the fool and wise. 

Plant of celestial seed ! if dropped below, 

Say, in what mortal soil thou deign'st to grow ? 

Fair opening to some court's propitious shine, § 

Or deep with diamonds in the flaming mine ? 

Twined with the wreaths Parnassian l laurels yield, 

Or reaped in iron harvest of the field? 

Where grows ? — Where grows it not ? If vain our toil, 

We ought to blame the culture, not the soil : 

Fixed to no spot is happiness sincere ; 

'Tis nowhere to be found, or everywhere : 

* What governs " themselves "? t Supply " retains." 

% What does " it " personate ? § Supply ellipsis. 

A. &P. Gr. — i75i. 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 171 

'Tis never to be bought, but always free, 

And,* fled from monarchs, St. John! dwells with thee. 

Ask of the learn'd the way. The learn'd are blind ; 

This bids to serve and that to shun mankind : 

Some place the bliss in action, some in ease ; 

Those call it pleasure, and contentment these : l 

Some, sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain ; 

Some, swelled to gods, confess e'en virtue vain : * 

Or, indolent, to each extreme they fall, 

To trust in everything, or doubt of all. 

Who thus define it, say they more or less 
Than this, that 2 happiness is happiness? 

Take Nature's path, and mad opinions leave ; 
All states can reach it, and all heads conceive ; 
Obvious her goods, in no extreme they dwell ; 
There needs 3 but thinking right and meaning well ; 
And f mourn our various portions as we please, 
Equal is common sense and common ease. 

Remember, man, " the Universal Cause 
Acts not by partial, but by general laws," 
And makes what happiness we justly call 
Subsist 4 not in the good of one, but all. — Pope, 

EXERCISE XVII. 

272. Hymn on a Heview of the Seasons. 

These, as they change, Almighty Father ! these 
Are but the varied God. The rolling year 
Is full of thee. Forth in the pleasing spring 
Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness and love. 
Wide flush the fields ; the softening air is balm ; 
Echo the mountains round ; the forest smiles, 
And every sense, and every heart, is joy. 

* Supply " having." f Supply " though we." 

A. & P. Gr. — i 692. * 670. * 1048.1. ±877. 
C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 52, Obs. 6. 4 QQ, Sp. R. 5. 



172 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Then comes thy glory in the summer months, 
With light and heat refulgent. Then thy sun 
Shoots full perfection through the swelling year, 
And oft thy voice in dreadful thunder speaks ; 
And oft at dawn, deep noon, or falling eve, 
By brooks, and groves, in hollow-whispering gales. 
Thy bounty shines in autumn unconfined, 
And spreads a common feast for all* that lives. 
In winter, awful Thou ! with clouds and storms 
Around thee thrown, tempest o'er tempest rolled, 
Majestic darkness ! l On the whirlwind's wing 
Riding sublime, Thou bidd'st the world adore, 
And humblest nature with thy northern blast. 

Mysterious round ! * what skill, what force divine, 
Deep felt, in these appear ; f a simple train, 
Yet so delightful mixed, with such kind art, 
Such beauty and beneficence combined ; 
Shade, unperceived, so softening into shade, 
And all so forming an harmonious whole, 
That as they still succeed, they ravish still. 
But wandering oft, with brute, unconscious gaze, 
Man marks not Thee, marks not the mighty hand 
That, ever busy, wheels the silent spheres ; 
Works in the secret deep; shoots, steaming, thence, 
The fair profusion that o'erspreads the spring ; 
Flings from the sun direct the flaming day; 
Feeds every creature ; hurls the tempest forth ; 
And, as on earth this grateful change revolves, 
With transport touches all the springs of life. 

Nature, attend ! join every living soul, 
Beneath the spacious temple of the sky, 
In adoration join, and, ardent raise 
One general song ! 

* " All " = " everything." f Supply " here we see," or the like. 

A. P. & Gr. — i 774. 
C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 57, Sp. R. 3, 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 173 

Ye, chief,* for whom the whole creation smiles, 
At once the head, f the heart, and tongue of all, 

Crown the great hymn ! 

For me, when I forget the darling theme, 
Whether the blossom blows, the summer ray- 
Russets the plain, inspiring autumn gleams, 
Or winter rises in the blackening east ; 
Be X my tongue mute, my fancy paint no more, 
And, dead to joy, forget my heart to beat ! 

Should * fate command me to the farthest verge 
Of the green earth, to distant barbarous climes, 
Bivers unknown to song — where first the sun 
Gilds Indian mountains, or his setting beam 
Flames on the Atlantic isles — 'tis nought to me : 
Since God is ever present, ever felt, 
In the void waste § as in the city full ; 
And where he vital spreads there must be joy. 
When even at last the solemn hour shall come, 
And wing my mystic flight to future worlds, 
I, cheerful, will obey ; there, with new powers, 
Will rising wonders sing : I cannot go 
Where universal love not smiles around, 
Sustaining all yon orbs, and all their sons : 
From seeming evil still educing good, 
And better thence again, and better still, 

In infinite progression. But I lose 

Myself in him, in light ineffable ! 

Come, then, expressive silence, muse his praise. 

— Thomson. 

* '* Chief"" = "chiefly " {158. 1). 
f " Head," 2d person. 
% Arrange " Let my tongue be," etc, 
§ [as much] as. 

A. P. &Gr.-i 390. 
15* 



174 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

EXERCISE XVIII. 

273. The Order of Nature. 

See, through this air, this ocean, and this earth, 

All matter quick, and bursting into birth. 

Above, how high progressive life may go ! 

Around, how wide ! how deep extend below ! 

Vast chain 1 of being, which from God began, 

Nature ethereal, human — angel, man — 

Beast, bird, fish, insect, what no eye can see, 

No glass can reach; *from infinite to thee, 

From thee to nothing. — On superior powers 

Were we to press, inferior f might on ours, 

Or in the full creation leave a void, 

Where, one step broken, the great scale's J destroyed 

From nature's chain whatever link you strike, 

Tenth or ten thousandth, § breaks the chain alike. 

And, if each system in gradation roll, 
Alike essential to the amazing whole, 
The least confusion 2 but in one, not all 
That system only, but the whole must fall. 
Let earth, unbalanced, from her orbit fly, 
Planets and suns run lawless through the sky ; 
Let ruling angels from their spheres be hurled, 
Being on being wrecked, and world on world ; 
Heaven's whole foundations to their center nod, 
And nature tremble to the throne of God. 
All this dread order break — for whom ! for thee ? 
Vile worm ! O madness ! pride ! impiety ! 

What || if the foot, ordained the dust to tread, 
Or hand to toil, aspired to be the head? 



* Supply " it [the chain] extends." f That is, " powers might press." 

t " Scale's " = « scale is." § Supply « it," viz., " striking a link," etc. 

|| Supply « would you say," or the like. 

A. &P. Gr.~ 1774. ^771. 
C. S. Gr. — 1 Lesson 57 5 Sp. R. 3, 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. ~ 175 

What if the head, the eye, or ear repined 
To serve mere engines to the ruling mind ? 
Just as absurd for any part ! to claim 
To be another in this general frame ; 
Just as absurd to mourn the tasks or pains 
The great directing mind or all ordains. 

All are but parts of one stupendous whole, 
Whose body nature is, and God the soul : 
That, changed through all, and yet in all the same, 
Great in the earth, as in th' ethereal frame ; 
Warms in the sun, refreshes in the breeze, 
Glows in the stars, and blossoms in the trees ; 
Lives through all life, extends through all extent, 
Spreads undivided, operates unspent; 
Breathes in our soul, informs our mortal part, 
As full, as perfect, in a hair as heart ; 
As fall, as perfect, in vile man that mourns, 
As the rapt seraph that adores and burns : 
To him no high, no low, no great, no small ; 
He fills, he bounds, connects, and equals all! 

Cease then, nor order imperfection name : 
Our proper bliss depends on what we blame. 
Know thy own point : this kind, this due degree 
Of blindness, weakness, Heaven bestows on thee. 
Submit — In this or any other sphere, 
Secure to be as blest as thou canst bear : 
Safe in the hands of one disposing Power, 
Or 2 in the natal or the mortal hour. 
All nature is but art, unknown to thee ; 
All chance, direction, which thou canst not see; 
All discord, harmony not understood; 
All partial evil, universal good; 
And, spite of Pride, in erring Reason's spite, 
One truth is clear — whatever is, is right. — Pope, 

A. &P. Gr.~ 1873. 21048. 6. 



176 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

EXERCISE XIX. 
274:. Invocation to Light. 

Hail, holy Light, offspring of Heaven first-born ! 
Or of th' eternal, co-eternal beam ? 
May I express thee unblamed ? since God is light, 
And never but in an unapproached light 
Dwelt from eternity ; dwelt then in thee, 
Bright effluence of bright essence increate ! 
Or hear'st thou rather, pure ethereal stream, 
Whose fountain who shall tell? Before the sun, 
Before the heavens thou wert, and at the voice 
Of God, as with a mantle, didst invest 
The rising world of waters dark and deep, 
Won from the void and formless infinite. 

Thee I revisit safe, 

And feel thy sovereign vital lamp : but thou 
Kevisit'st not these eyes, that roll in vain 
To find 1 thy piercing ray, and find no dawn ; 
So thick a drop serene hath quenched their orbs, 
Or dim suffusion veiled ! Yet not the more 
Cease I to wander, where the Muses haunt 
Clear spring, or shady grove, or sunny hill, 
Smit with the love of sacred song : but chief 
Thee, Sion, and the flowery brooks beneath, 
That wash thy hallowed feet, and warbling flow. 
Then feed on thoughts, that voluntary move 
Harmonious numbers ; as the wakeful bird 
Sings darkling, and in shadiest covert hid 
Tunes her nocturnal note. Thus with the year 
Seasons return ; but not to me returns 
Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, 
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine : 



A. &P. Gr. — *882. 

C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 06, Sp. R. 6. 



EXERCISES IN POETRY. 177 

But cloud instead, and ever-during dark 

Surrounds me ! from the cheerful ways of men 

Cut off; and for the book of knowledge fair, 

Presented with a universal blank 

Of nature's works, to me expunged and razed, 

And wisdom at one entrance quite shut out ! 

So much the rather thou, celestial Light ! 

Shine inward, and the mind through all her powers 

Irradiate ; there plant eyes ; all mist from thence 

Purge and disperse ; that I may see and tell 

Of things invisible to mortal sight. — Milton. 



EXERCISE XX. 
275. Discourse between Adam and Eve. 

Now came still evening on, and twilight gray- 
Had in her sober livery all things clad ; 
Silence accompanied ; for beast and bird, 
They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, 
Were slunk, all but the wakeful nightingale ; 
She all night long her amorous descant sung ; 
Silence was pleased. Now glowed the firmament 
With living sapphires : Hesperus, that led 
The starry host, rode brightest, till the moon, 
Rising in clouded majesty, at length 
Apparent queen, unveiled her peerless light, 
And o'er the dark her silver mantle threw ; 
When Adam thus to Eve : " Fair consort, the hour 
Of night, and all things * now retired to rest, 
Mind us of like repose ; since God hath set 
Labor and rest, as day and night, to men 
Successive ; and the timely dew of sleep, 
Now falling with soft slumb'rous weight, inclines 
Our eyelids. Other creatures all day long 

* Supply "having." 



178 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Rove idle, unemployed, and less need rest ; 
Man hath his daily work of body or of mind 
Appointed, which declares his dignity, 
And the regard of Heaven on all his ways ; 
While other animals unactive range, 
And of their doings God takes no account. 
To-morrow, ere fresh morning streak the east 
With first approach of light, we must be * risen, 
And at our pleasant labor; 2 to reform 
Yon flowery arbors, yonder alleys green, 
Our walk at noon, with branches overgrown, 
That mock our scant manuring, and require 
More hands than ours to lop their wanton growth : 
Those blossoms also, and those drooping gums, 
That lie bestrown, unsightly and unsmooth, 
Ask riddance, if we mean to tread with ease. 
Meanwhile, as nature wills, night bids us rest." 

To whom thus Eve, with perfect beauty adorned : 
" My author and disposer, what thou bidd'st, 
Unargued I obey ; so God ordains ; 
God is thy law, thou mine ; to know no more 
Is woman's happiest knowledge and her praise. 
With thee conversing, I forget all time : 
All seasons and their change, all please alike. 
Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising* sweet, 
With charm of earliest birds ; pleasant * the sun 
When first on this delightful land he spreads 
His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower, 
Glistering with dew ; fragrant the fertile earth 
After soft showers ; and sweet the coming on 
Of grateful evening mild : then silent night, 
With this her solemn bird, and this fair moon, 
And these the gems of heaven, her starry train : 

* Supply "is." 
A. & P. Gr. — 1 1048. 7. 2 882. 
C. S. Gr. — 2 Lesson 66, Sp. R. 6. 



EXEKCISES IN POETRY. 179 

But neither breath of morn, when she ascends 
With charm of earliest birds ; nor rising sun 
On this delightful land ; nor herb, fruit, flower, 
Glistering with dew ; nor fragrance after showers ; 
Nor grateful evening mild ; nor silent night, 
With this her solemn bird ; nor walk by moon 
Or glittering starlight — without thee is sweet. 
But wherefore all night long shine these ? for whom 
This glorious sight, when sleep hath shut all eyes ? " 

To whom our general ancestor replied, — 
" Daughter of God and man, accomplished Eve ! 
These have * their course to finish round the earth 
By morrow evening ; and from land to land, 
In order, though to nations yet unborn, 
Ministering light prepared, they set and rise, 
Lest total darkness should by night regain 
Her old possession, and extinguish life 
In nature and all things ; which these soft fires 
Not only enlighten, but with kindly heat 
Of various influence, foment and warm, 
Temper or nourish ; or in part shed down 
Their stellar virtue on all kinds that grow 
On earth,* made hereby apter to receive 
Perfection from the sun's more potent ray. 
These, then, though unbeheld in deep of night, 
Shine not in vain ; nor think, though men were 2 none, 
That heaven would want spectators, God want praise : 
Millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth 
Unseen 3 both when we wake and when we sleep. 
All these, with ceaseless praise, his works behold, 
Both day and night. How often, from the steep 
Of echoing hill or thicket, have we heard 
Celestial voices to the midnight air, 

* Supply " being." 
A.&P. Gr.-i 888. 21048.1. 3 206. 



180 ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Sole, or responsive each to other's note, 
Singing their great Creator ? Oft in bands, 
While they kept watch, or nightly rounding walk 
With heavenly touch of instrumental sounds, 
In full harmonic number joined, their songs 
Divide the night, and lift our thoughts to heaven." 

Thus talking, hand in hand, alone they passed 
On to their blissful bower 



There arrived, both stood, 



Both turned ; and under open sky adored 

The God that made both sky, air, earth, and heaven, 

Which they beheld, the moon's resplendent globe, 

And starry pole. " Thou l also mad'st the night, 

Maker Omnipotent, and thou the day, 

Which we, in our appointed work employed, 

Have finished, happy in our mutual help 

And mutual love, the crown of all our bliss 

Ordained by thee ; and this delicious place, 

For us too large, where thy abundance wants 

Partakers, and uncropped falls to the ground ; 

But thou hast promised from us two a race, 

To fill the earth, who shall with us extol 

Thy goodness infinite, both when we wake, 

And when we seek, as now, thy gift of sleep." — Milton. 



A. &P. Gr. — 11126. 



FA. H T III. 

COMPOSITION. 

276. Composition is the art of expressing our thoughts 
by means of language.* 

277. Grammar becomes an aid to composition when, by 
its study, we are made familiar with the laws of language, 
so as to be able readily and correctly to apply them* 

278. In order to correct and elegant writing, four 

things are requisite : — 

1. An adequate knowledge of the subject we propose 
to elucidate, embracing its facts and its relation to other subjects 
of thought, i. e. the material of composition. 

2. The second essential consists in a clear and methodical 
arrangement of the ideas we wish to present. 

3. Thorough acquaintance with the language 
in which we write, embracing its lexicology and grammar. 
This, in its highest sense, can be acquired only by large expe- 
rience and a careful and critical study of the best authors. 

4. Such familiarity with the principles of style as will 
enable us, in the form of language used, and in the general man- 

* Just as spoken language is used practically for many years before any 
formal attempt is made to teach it, so the habit of writing* should be com- 
menced as soon as the child can read the simplest sentences and master 
the forms of the letters. 

Much practice should then ensue, which the skillful teacher will not r ail 
to turn to grood account, so that the pupil will, unconsciously, and as a 
part of tho discipline of the primary school, form the habit of expressing 
his thoughts in writinor as well as in speech. 

16 (WD 



182 COMPOSITION. 

agement of our theme, to conform to the requirements of a cor- 
rect taste. 

279. Composition, then, is a practical art, whose best 
guide is experience, requiring culture, study, and thought in the 
selection and preparation of its material, and care and judgment 
in arranging methodically the different divisions of our subject, 
and in unfolding them in logical order. 

280. In training the pupil to habits of correct and elegant 
writing, a variety of means may be used, among which we in- 
stance the following : — 

1. The framing of sentences, after specific models, to famil- 
iarize the pupil with the use of certain sentential elements. 

2. Copying from the best authors. 

3. Dictation exercises. 

4. Reproduction. 

5. Impromptu composition. 

6. Paraphrase. 

7. Formal essays, including, also, letters and other forms of 
original composition. 

8. The critical study of standard authors, in stated exercises, 
to discover and correct errors and infelicities of expression ; and 
the reconstruction of such portions as are faulty. 

J. Framing Sentences. 

281. 1. With a given subject, which may be either a sin- 
gle word or an extended phrase or clause, let the pupil write a 
proper predicate, as follows : — 

House. Rose. The good man. 

The house stands by the side of the road. 

The rose grows in the garden. 

A good man will be loved by all. 

2. With a given predicate supply a proper subject ; as, 

grows in the meadows. 

plows his field. 

is queen of England. 

— — discovered America. 



FRAMING SENTENCES. 183 

3. Take a sentence in its simplest form (35) (grammat- 
ical subject and verb), and expand it. 

(a.) By adjectives and adjective adjuncts, to limit the subject 
(123). 

(b.) By adverbs, adverbial phrases, or clauses (125). 

(c.) By words, phrases, or clauses, to limit the object or the 
attribute (66). 

Note. In exercises of this nature, an important element is 
their freshness. A skillful teacher can readily furnish material 
as it is needed, either upon the blackboard, for oral or written 
exercises, or by dictation to the pupils. Such new, fresh ma- 
terial is to be preferred to any prepared beforehand in the text- 
book. The latter is almost universally dull and irksome, and its 
study is looked forward to as a task. 

II Copying. 

282. In this exercise, absolute accuracy should be aimed at 
— the acquisition of such skill as will render the pupil positive 
and certain in the mechanical execution ; while at the same time 
he cultivates neatness and dispatch in penmanship. 

283. The work of copying may be variously supplemented by 
familiar questions as to the meaning of the author, the use of par- 
ticular words or phrases, or it may be made an exercise in analysis 
and parsing. 

III. Dictation Exercises. 
284:. The value of written exercises in mastering the orthog- 
raphy of the language is universally conceded. They are of no 
less importance, considered as a means of making the pupil fa- 
miliar by practice with the forms of language, and giving him 
facility in the mechanical part of composition, as well as afford- 
ing the very best drill in punctuation, the use of capitals, etc. 

General Suggestions. 

1. Method. The class being properly seated, as for recitation, 
with slate and pencil in hand, the teacher reads deliberately, and 
distinctly, and slowly enough for all to follow, selected sentences, 



184 COMPOSITION. 

or a continuous narrative,* adapted to the capacity of the pupils. 
The exercise should not be too long, and ample time must be 
allowed for thorough correction and discussion. 

2. When the writing is completed, the pupils change slates, 
and the teacher, with one of the slates in hand, revises the entire 
work. 

(a.) The spelling* The teacher pronounces the words in 
order, or such of them as may be deemed sufficient, and each 
pupil in turn spells a word orally, the class meanwhile noting 
upon the slates all errors of spelling. 

(b.) The punctuation and use of capitals receive 
similar attention, in such form as the judgment of the teacher 
may suggest. 

(c.) Familiar questions upon the meaning of particular 
words or phrases are not inappropriate for the most elemen- 
tary class, and may be made both interesting and profitable. 

(d.) If the class is somewhat advanced, attention may be given 
to the analysis of derivative words. 

(e.) Exercises, as occasion may serve, in transposition, 
substitution of synonymous words or phrases, variety of expres- 
sion, grammatical analysis, etc. 

IV. Reproduction. 

283. Among the most important auxiliaries to composition, 
especially in the early stages of the pupil's work, is repro- 
duction. For this purpose may be used brief narratives, or 
familiar oral lessons in natural history, biography, trades, etc. 

As a stated exercise, the teacher, or a member- of the class, 
may read a short narrative, or other selection, or relate a story 
or incident. The pupils then write out from memory in their 
own language the substance of what was read or related to them. 

* In the first efforts at writing from dictation, the exercise may consist 
of detached words from the spelling-book, or, better still, from the read- 
ing lesson. 

When the pupil can write with a good degree of rapidity, the dictation, 
exercises should, for the most part, embrace continuous discourse — the 
selections being adapted to his capacity, and exhibiting the best models. 



PARAPHRASE. 185 

This exercise should at the first be brief, but may be extended 
as the pupils acquire skill. 

The daily lessons of the school room, in geography, history, 
etc., will furnish additional material for such brief essays in re- 
production. 

In subsequent lessons, an outline may be given by the teacher, 
and the pupils be encouraged to enlarge by adding such infor- 
mation as they themselves possess, or can derive from other 
sources. 

V. Impromptu Composition. 

286. For the purpose of giving readiness and celerity in 
composition, and compelling abstraction of the mind from every 
other interest save that in hand, there is no exercise of greater 
value than that of impromptu composition* 

1. Method. Let the pupils of a class be seated in order, with 
slate and pencil, or other writing material in hand. When all 
are in readiness, the teacher announces a simple theme adapted 
to the capacity of the class, and at a signal all begin to write. 
At the expiration of three, five, or ten minutes, upon the giving 
of another signal, all cease. No emendations are now to be 
made. 

2. The teacher may now call upon one and another of the 
pupils to read what they have written, and when a little confi- 
dence has been created by experience, the pupils, and afterwards 
the teacher, may, in a kindly spirit, criticise the several perform- 
ances, and make such suggestions as seem pertinent. 

3. After a time, these impromptu exercises may be made a 
drill preliminary to a more elaborate essay on the same subject, 
to be written out by each pupil. 

4. The time allotted, and the particular methods employed, 
may be varied as each teachers genius and experience, and the 
wants of the class, may dictate. 

VI Paraphrase. 

287. Paraphrase is a free translation, by which the 
sense is expressed in other language, and may be amplified. 

16* 



186 COMPOSITION. 

288. The following cases may be adduced : — 

1. By transposition of words, as the active for the 
passive, or the passive for the active voice ; as, — 

" Caasar conquered Gaul " — " Gaul was conquered by Caesar." 
(<z.) The active form is to be preferred : — 
(1.) When the object of a transitive verb is an infinitive fol- 
lowed by a substantive ; as, — 

" He intended to purchase a house ; " not — 
" A house was intended to be purchased by him." 
(2.) When the object is a general term, limited by a phrase 
or clause following; as, — 

" He saw the necessity of prompt attention to the matter ; " not — 
" The necessity of prompt attention to the matter was seen by 
him." 

(3.) When the object is a propositional clause; as, — 
" He knew that the battle had been lost; " not — 
" It was known by him that the battle had been lost ; " or — 
" That the battle had been lost was known by him." 
(b.) The passive form is preferable in the following cases : — 
(1.) When the agent is followed by a long relative clause; 
as, — 

" He was admitted into this institution by some gentlemen who 
had been his father's oldest friends, and who had long watched 
over his interests." 

(2.) When the agent is not known, or unimportant, or under- 
stood to be persons in general ; as, — 

" The Romans were considered good soldiers." 

" It may easily be conceived how reluctant we were to return." 

"The righteous are held in everlasting remembrance." 

2. By the expansion of a word into a phrase, or the con- 
traction of a phrase into a single word ; as, — 

" Diligent boys improve rapidly " — " Boys of diligent habits 
improve with great rapidity." 

Considerable amplification may be admitted in the exercises 
under this head. 

3. The expansion and contraction of clauses in sen- 
tences; as, — 



EXERCISES. 187 

"I know him to be a wise man" — "I know that he is a 
wise man." 

" When Ccesar had crossed the Alps, he passed into Italy" — 
" Having crossed the Alps, Caesar passed into Italy." (B. G. 
649, 650.) 

4. Changes of words or phrases for others of the same 
meaning. 

5. Recast of sentences, using any word or style, so as 
to convey the meaning. Under this head, change verse into 
prose. (See 291. III.) 

6. Taking a given sentence or expression as a theme or text, 
to be expanded at pleasure. 

This last admits of great variety of exercise. 

Exercises. 

289. Change the following into the passive form : — 

1. " False accusations can not diminish his real merit." 
" Them that honor me, I will honor." 

" Religion gives order and liberty to the world." 
" The audience received the new play with rapturous applause." 
" The armies of the French emperor overran the whole coun- 
try, and stripped the poor peasants of all their possessions." 

2. Substitute phrases or clauses for the words in Italics : — 
" Good men are only free; the rest are slaves. 9 ' 

" Hidden dangers are always the most difficult to avoid." 

"The wise man applauds the most virtuous; the rest of the 
world him who is richest." 

"Diligent and persevering effort will easily accomplish any 
desired end." 

" The honest man will be respected." 

3. Extend the following abridged propositions : — 
" What to do I know not." 

" The war being at an end, the troops were disbanded." 

"We hold these principles to be self-evident." 

" God rewards the good and punishes the bad " 

" This vigorous measure was an unexpected blow to the Parlia- 



188 COMPOSITION. 

ment. The power of the crown became at this time irre- 
sistible" 

4. Change the words and phrases in Italics for others of the 
same sense. 

" Never had I beheld such a warring of the elements." 

" Integrity is the best defense against the ills of life." 

" Every man is known by his principles:' 

" Give me a retired life, a peaceful conscience, honest thoughts, 
and virtuous actions, and I can pity Csesar." 

" All things were made by him, and without him was not any- 
thing made that was made" 

5. Recast the following, to express the same meaning : — 
"Let another man praise thee, and not thine own mouth; a 

stranger, and not thine own lips." 

"Without reputation, gold has no value, station no dignity, 
beauty no charm, age no reverence." 

" The citizens of America celebrate that day which gave birth 
to our liberties." * 

*** For other examples, see 24:3, 24:4:. 

Variety of Expression. 

290. The following examples * will serve to exhibit the great 
variety of forms in which the same thought may be ex- 
pressed: — • 

I. By transposition of clauses : 

I. (1.) " That greatness of mind which shows itself in dan- 
gers and labors, if it wants justice, is blamable." 

(2.) "If that greatness of mind which shows itself in dangers 
and labors is void of justice, it is blamable." 

(3.) "That greatness of mind is blamable, which shows itself 
in dangers and labors, if it wants justice. " 

(4.) " If that greatness of mind is void of justice, which shows 
itself in dangers and labors, it is blamable." 

(5.) "That greatness of mind is blamable, which shows itself 
in dangers and labors, if it is void of justice." 

* From Murray's English Exercises, 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 189 

(6.) " If it wants justice, that greatness of mind which shows 
itself in dangers and labors is blamable." 

II. (1.) " Let us not conclude, while dangers are at a dis- 
tance and do not immediately approach us, that we are secure, 
unless we use the necessary precautions to prevent them.' , 

(2.) " Unless we use the necessary precautions to prevent 
dangers, let us not conclude, while they are at a distance and 
do not immediately approach us, that we are secure." 

(3.) " Unless we use the necessary precautions to prevent 
dangers, let us not conclude that we are secure while they are 
at a distance and do not immediately approach us." 

(4.) " Let us not conclude that we are secure, while dangers 
are at a distance and do not immediately approach us, unless we 
use the necessary precautions to prevent them." 

(5.) " While dangers are at a distance and do not immediately 
approach us, let us not conclude that we are secure, unless we 
use the necessary precautions to prevent them." 

291. Similarly transpose the following : — 

" I am willing to remit all that is past, provided it may be 
done with safety." 

" He who made light to spring from primeval darkness will 
make order, at last, to arise from the seeming confusion of the 
world." 

II By the use of synonymous clauses, phrases, and words : 

I. (1.) " He who lives always in the bustle of the world lives 
in a perpetual warfare." 

(2.) " To live continually in the bustle of the world, is to live 
in a perpetual warfare." 

(3.) " By living constantly in the bustle of the world, our life 
becomes a scene of contention." 

(4.) " It is a continual warfare to live perpetually in the bustle 
of the world." 

(5.) " The hurry of the world, to him who always lives in it, 
is a perpetual conflict." 

(6.) M They who are constantly engaged in the tumults of the 
world are strangers to the blessings of peace." 



190 COMPOSITION. 

II. (1.) "A man of polite imagination is let into a great many 
pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving " — Addison,. 

(2.) " a great many pleasures not open to the 

vulgar." 

III. 
(1.) " The Lord ruleth me ; and I shall want nothing; 
He hath set me in a place of pasture ; 
He hath brought me up on the water of refreshment ; 
He hath converted my soul." — Douay Bible. 

(2.) " The Lord is my shepherd : I shall not want; 
He maketh me to lie down in green pastures ; 
He leadeth me beside the still waters ; 
He restoreth my soul ; 

He leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his 
name's sake." — English Bible. 

(3.) " The Lord is my shepherd; no want shall I know; 
I feed in green pastures, safe folded I rest ; 
He leadeth my soul where the still waters flow, 

Restores me when wandering, redeems when oppressed." 

— Montgomery. 
(4.) " The Lord my pasture shall prepare, 
And feed me with a shepherd's care ; 
His presence shall my wants supply, 
And guard me with a watchful eye ; 
My noonday walks he shall attend, 
And all my midnight hours defend." — Addison. 
IV. (1.) " The sun had scarcely begun to shed his beams 
upon the summits of the snowy mountains which rise above 
Granada, when the Christian camp was in motion." — Irving. 

(2.) " The Christian camp was in motion as soon as the sun 
had [or, when the sun had scarcely] begun to shed his beams 
upon the snowy mountains," etc. 

(3.) " Early in the morning the Christian camp was astir." 
(4.) " A range of snow-capped mountains rises above Granada. 
Their tops were scarcely illumined by the rising sun, before the 
Spanish force broke up their camp and prepared for the assault." 



THE ESSAY. 191 

In the same way vary the following : — 

" The spirit of true religion breathes gentleness and affability." 
"The advantages of this world, even when innocently gained," 
are uncertain blessings." 

Criticism. 

292. Take a selection from some standard author, and by 
apt questioning, or otherwise, discover its points of excel- 
lence, as well as its defects. At the first, select some impor- 
tant particular as the sole object of scrutiny; follow this by 
others ; and when the class is advanced enough, let the exer- 
cise be made more general. 

293. The following, among other points, may receive atten- 
tion : — 

1. The right use of words, to convey clearly the sense. 

2. Active for passive, or passive for active form. 

3. The position of clauses. 

4. Whether sentences are too diffuse. What improvement 
can be made by condensation. 

(a.) Change of relative clauses for adjectives or adjunct 
phrases. 

(b.) Change of members in compound sentences for de- 
pendent clauses. 

(c.) Change of conditional clauses, substituting an infin- 
itive or a participle with the case absolute. (131.) 

5. What improvement can be suggested in the general man- 
agement of the theme. 

The Essay. 

294. The regular composition of themes or essays, requires 
that the pupil first have a thorough knowledge of the sub- 
ject he proposes to discuss ; that he carefully consider the 
various heads under which it should be arranged, as 
well as their connection, and their dependence upon each other. 

293. Mr. Graham* suggests the following outline of "the 

* Art of Composition, p. 226. 



192 COMPOSITION. 

various heads under which subjects for themes are generally 
treated : — 

" 1. The definition or proposition. 2. The judgment or opin- 
ion. 3. The cause or reason. 4. The confirmation. 5. The 
simile or comparison. 6. The example. 7. The quotation. 
8. The conclusion." 

Examples. 

296. In addition to the examples presented in the grammar, 1 
the following are suggested : — 

I. On Courage. 
Definition. The results to its possessor. Why? Is it a nat- 
ural quality, or acquired? Keflections. May courage be per- 
verted? Conclusions. 

77. On Contentment. 
Characteristics of a contented mind. Temptations to discon- 
tent. Contrast between a contented and a discontented state of 
mind. "What is the end of our being? therefore, motives for 
contentment. Comparison with the condition of others. The 
wisdom of Providence. The daily blessings of life. The power 
of habit upon mind and body. The evils of discontent. Deduc- 
tion. 

III. On Government. 

Definition. Its origin. Necessary effects of anarchy. Ear- 
liest mode of government — whence deduced. What qualities 
give one man power over others ? Different forms of govern- 
ment. Illustrate or define each. Advantages, disadvantages, 
etc. What government in this country? Its advantages. Con- 
clusion. 

IV. The Rise and Progress of Language.* 

1. Language. 

(a.) Its signification, (5.) Its present state, (c.) Its origin. 
(d.) The first method of communicating thoughts, (e.) T>e 
principle upon which language was formed. 

* Blair's Rhetoric. Lecture VI. 
A. & P. Gr.— 1 1166. C. S. Gr. — iLesson 80. 



LETTER WRITING. 193 

2. Pronunciation. 

(a.) Inflections, (b.) Gestures. 

3. The Character of Language changed. 

4. The Style of early Languages. 

(a.) The employment of figures. (5.) These reasonings 
confirmed, (c.) The origin of Prose. 

Letter Writing. 

297. No kind of writing is less subject to the rules of art 
than that of correspondence. More than any other, letters are a 
transcript of the individual life, and exhibit the characteristics 
of our individual style. 

There are, however, some general forms which good taste 
and usage enjoin. Among the points to be noted are the fol- 
lowing : — 

1. The date, including generally the name of the place from 
which the letter is written. 

2. The address, which may also embrace the name of the 
person or party for whom the letter is intended. 

3. The body of the letter. 
(a,) The introduction. 

(5.) The information we design to communicate. 

4. The complimentary closing and signature. 

5. The folding and superscription. 

298. The following are examples : — 

(Body of the letter.) 

ty/eiy tiufru, U0UZ4, 

17 



194 COMPOSITION. 

Or thus : — 

Alette/ana 7 , u. 

OS eat <Mis 

(Body of the letter.) 

^be^ecljt&uy-, 'uowtj, 

Another form : — 

G>$k (teat d%t / 

(Body of the letter.) 

Jann/ foned. 
teve/anc/, £?. 



299. The pupil should study neatness in the mechanical ar- 
rangement of the different parts of the letter, so that the effect 
shall be pleasing. 

300. No carelessness or slovenliness in penmanship is ever 
admissible. That some eminent men are thus slovenly, only 
goes to show that they are by so much less eminent. 

301. The style should be easy and natural ; and, in business 



STYLE. 



195 



letters especially, simple, direct, and perspicuous — so as to be 
readily and perfectly understood. 

302. The superscription, occupying the lower half of the 
envelope, should always be carefully and plainly written. The 
following is an example : — 





Stamp. 





303. 

style. 

304. 
tv ays. 

305. 



Style. 

The manner in which we express our thoughts is called 



The same thought may be expressed in a variety of 

(See 290.) 

The character of our style, though determined 
chiefly by our manner of thought, is susceptible of cultivation, 
or may be more or less modified, in view of the effect we de- 
sign to produce upon those whom we address. 

306. The requisites of a good style are, that such language 
be used as shall convey our ideas clearly to the minds of 
others, and at the same time in such a dress as, by pleasing 
and interesting them, shall most effectually strengthen the 
impressions which we seek to make. 

307. All the qualities of a good style, says Blair,* 
may be ranged under two heads, perspicuity and ornament. 



* Rhetoric. Lecture X. 



196 COMPOSITION. 



Choice of Words. 



308. Perspicuity consists in the use of such words as to 
convey to others the exact ideas intended. It comprises purity, 
propriety , and precision . 

300. Purity consists in the use of such words and such 
arrangement of them as are consistent with the idiom of the 
language. 

310. Propriety is the selection of such words as, accord- 
ing to their established usage, most clearly, forcibly, and 
elegantly express the sense intended to be conveyed. 

311. Precision rejects superfluous words, and carefully 
discriminates between words usually accounted synonymous. 

The following examples will serve for illustration : — 

Custom, habit. Custom respects the action ; habit the actor. 
By custom, we mean the frequent repetition of the same act ; 
by habit, the effect which that repetition produces on the mind 
or body. By the custom of walking often in the streets, one 
acquires the habit of idleness. 

Pride, vanity. Pride makes us esteem ourselves ; vanity 
makes us desire the esteem of others. It is just to say that a 
man may be too proud to be vain. 

Entire, complete. A thing is entire, by wanting none of its 
parts ; complete, by wanting none of the appendages which be- 
long to it. A man may have an entire house to himself, and yet 
not have one complete apartment. 

Surprised, astonished, amazed, confounded. — I am surprised 
at what is new or unexpected ; I am astonished at what is vast 
or great ; I am amazed at what is incomprehensible ; I am con- 
founded by what is shocking or terrible. 

Let the pupil similarly discriminate in the use of the follow- 
ing, and write sentences illustrating their proper use : — 

Austerity, severity, rigor. Desist, renounce, quit, leave off. 
Haughtiness, disdain. To distinguish, to separate. To weary, 
to fatigue. To abhor, to detest. To invent, to discover. Tran- 



STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 197 

quillity, peace, calm. A difficulty, an obstacle. Wisdom, pru- 
dence. Enough, sufficient. To acknowledge, to avow, to confess. 
To expect, to hope. Occasion, opportunity. Character, reputa- 
tion. Position, attitude. Haste, speed, hurry, despatch. Weary, 
fatigue. Esteem, appreciate, value, prize. 

1. The language, both as to the selection of words and the 
arrangement and connection of clauses, should be adapted to the 
nature of the theme. 

2. As a general rule, short words are to be preferred, and 
of Saxon rather than of Latin origin. 

" No man may put off the law of God " is better than — 
" No individual is permitted to defer compliance with the obli- 
gation imposed upon him to render obedience to God's require- 
ments." 

3. Sometimes the dignity and majesty of the theme, on the 
principle of " sound adapted to the sense," requires a more pre- 
tentious form of words. 

Structure of Sentences. 

312. In the structure of sentences attention should be 
given to the following : — 

1. Clearness and precision. 2. Unity. 3. Strength. 4. Har- 
mony. 

I. Clearness and precision, in addition to the selec- 
tion of proper words, demands that they be so placed in relation 
to each other as to avoid any ambiguity . Liability to error 
in this particular is most common : — 

(a.) In the position of the adverb l (193) ; 
(b.) In the arrangement of subordinate clauses and 
phrases 2 (134). 

II. Unity requires that every sentence have but one pre- 
dominant object of thought. When there is no dependence 
or relation save that of natural sequence in discourse, successive 
propositions should be stated in separate sentences. 

III. Strength may be denned as such a disposition of 

A. & P. Gr. — 1 936-943. * 754-759 ; 817. 
17* 



198 COMPOSITION. 

the several words and members as shall bring out the sense 
to the best advantage ; as shall render the impression which 
the period is designed to make, most full and complete, 
and give to every word and every member their due weight 
and force. 

1. Reject redundant words and members. 

2. Arrange the most important words so that the col- 
location shall bring them into prominence. 

3. In the arrangement of the several members and 
clauses, a weaker proposition should rarely follow a stronger 
one, and when a sentence consists of two members, it should 
generally close with the longer. 

4. In complex sentences, especially those containing condi- 
tional clauses, the subordinate clause should generally 
stand first, and the sentence should close with the principal 
statement. Compare the following : — 

" A man will keep my words, if he love me." 
" If a man love me, he will keep my words." 
" He was very sorrowful when he heard this." 
" When he heard this, he was very sorrowful." 

5. In long sentences containing a number of limiting phrases 
or clauses, care must be taken that the expressions most nearly 
related in thought be brought the most closely to- 
gether.* 

G. Avoid closing a sentence with an adverb, preposition, or 
any inconsiderable word ; as, — 

" Generosity is a strong virtue, which many persons are 
fond of" 

7. In comparative sentences, and in those in which any 
resemblance or opposition is to be expressed between different 

* Herbert Spencer cites the following as an instance : — 
Faulty Arrangement. — " A modern newspaper statement, though prob- 
ably true, would be laughed at, if quoted in a book as testimony ; but the 
letter of a court gossip is thought good historical evidence, if written some 
centuries ago." 

Correct Arrangement. — il Though probably true, a modern newspaper 
statement quoted in a book as testimony, would be laughed at; but the 
letter of a court gossip, if written some centuries ago, is thought good 
historical evidence." 



STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 199 

objects, care should be taken to preserve some resemblance 
in the language and construction.* 

IV. Harmony in the structure of sentences is attained by 
the use of such words as in themselves and in their succession 
in the sentence are grateful to the ear and adapted to the sense. 

I. In the choice and arrangement of words, without regard to 
expression. 

(a.) In the choice of words, wherever possible without ob- 
scuring the sense, regard should be paid to a pleasing succession 
of consonant and vowel, long and short sounds. Long and 
short words may very happily alternate, unless something in the 
nature of the thought seems to demand a predominance of the 
one or the other. 

(h.) In the arrangement of words, a due regard being 
paid to strength, as presented (in 312 . III., ante), that ar- 
rangement is generally to be preferred which is easiest and most 
agreeable to the organs of speech. 

(1.) The longest members of a period, and the longest and 
most sonorous words, should generally come at the close of the 
sentence. 

(2.) Long and short sentences may appropriately alter- 
nate. 

(3.) Words should not, however, be used merely for 
sound ; such use weakens the force ; and affectation of harmo- 
ny becomes a blemish rather than a grace. 

Examples. 
" The Accusing Spirit, which flew up to heaven's chancery with 
the oath, blushed as he gave it in ; and the Recording Angel, as he 
wrote it down, dropped a tear upon the word, and blotted it out 
forever." — Sterne, 

* The following is an elegant example of this rule from Pope's Homer : — 
14 Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil the better artist : in the one we 
most admire the man ; in the other, the work. Homer hurries us with a 
commanding impetuosity; Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty. 
Homer scatters with a generous profusion ; Virgil bestows with a careful 
magnificence. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden 
overflow : Virgil, like a river within its banks, with a constant stream." 



200 COMPOSITION. 

"We shall conduct you to a hill-side, laborious indeed at the 
first ascent; but else so smooth, so green, so full of goodly 
prospects and melodious sounds on every side, that the harp of 
Orpheus was not more charming." — Milton. " Education." 

II. The sound adapted to the sense, that is, such a choice 
of words as to produce a resemblance to the sounds we mean to 
describe, or in some sense suggest to the ear effects analogous 
to those with which we seek to impress the mind. 

Examples. 
" And see ! she stirs ! 

She starts, — she moves, — she seems to feel 

The thrill of life along her keel ; 

And, spurning with her foot the ground, 

With one exulting, joyous bound, 

She leaps into the ocean's arms ! " 

— Longfellow. ' ' The Building of the Ship." 
" On a sudden, open fly, 
With impetuous recoil and jarring sound, 
Th' infernal doors, and on their hinges grate 
Harsh thunder, that the lowest bottom shook 
Of Erebus." — Par. Lost, B. II., Line 879. 

" Heaven opened wid« 
Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound, 
On golden hinges moving, to let forth 
The King of glory, in his powerful Word 
And Spirit coming to create new worlds." 

— Id., B. VII., L. 205. 

Figurative Language. 

313* By figurative language, is meant a mode of speech in 
which words are changed from their primitive or literal sense ; 
generally the expression of abstract or immaterial ideas by 
images or pictures from the material world.* 

* For a brief account of the most usual figures of speech, see A. & P, 
Gr. 1045-1047, 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 201 

314. In prose composition, or ordinary discourse, fig- 
ures should be sparingly used, and never except when their 
use serves to give vivacity, force, or beauty, or happily illustrate 
what is said. 

315. Sometimes an apothegm, in the form of simile or 
metaphor, 1 presents a more apt and forcible statement than can 
be made by any formal description. Of this nature are many 
proverbs and familiar phrases in common use. 

316. Figures should be natural, and adapted to the 
subject they are used to enforce or illustrate. 

317. When a figure has answered the reasonable purpose of 
the use, it must be discontinued — any forced extension of its 
application should be avoided. 

318. Literal and figurative language must not be blend- 
ed together; as, — 

" I intend to use these words in the thread of my speculations." 
The following is elegant and consistent : — 
" In peace, thou art the gale of spring; in war, the mountain 
storm." — Ossian. 

319. Two different figures should not meet on one 
object; as, — 

" I bridle in my struggling muse with pain, 
That longs to launch into a bolder strain." 
The muse can not be at the same time both a horse and a ship. 
" No human happiness is so serene as not to contain any alloy" 
" Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through the 
darkest gloom." 

Several different figures should not generally suc- 
ceed each other on the same object. 

Varieties of Style. 

320. Style may be characterized as diffuse or concise, lean 
or copious, florid or plain, dry or rich, nervous or feeble, stately 
or familiar, terse or loose, elegant or barbarous,* etc. 

* A full account of the different qualities of style belongs properly to a 
treatise on rhetoric, and can not be taken up in this elementary treatise. 
A. &P. Gr. — 11046. 2,3. 



202 COMPOSITION. 

321 . Among these, it is of special moment for young writers 
to exercise sound judgment in the use of the two following: — 

1. A diffuse style amplifies the thought, places it in a 
variety of lights, and admits of a profusion of ornament and 
illustration. When too extreme, it is apt to become weak and 
languid. 

2. The concise style expresses the thought in the fewest 
words possible, selects words for their force and terseness, and 
deals in short, pointed periods. In excess, it becomes abrupt 
and obscure. 

Punctuation and Capitals. 

322. The concise, but judicious, directions given in the 
grammars of this series for punctuation 1 and the use of 
capital letters, 2 make any resume of those subjects in this 
treatise unnecessary. 

After all the rules that can be given, though copiously illus- 
trated, punctuation is still a matter whose most valuable les- 
sons are those of observation and experience. 

A. & P. Gr. — 1 984-1038. * 77, 78. 

C. S. Gr. — i Lesson 77. 2 78. 



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